Examining the Subjective Fairness of At-home and Online Tests - Taking Duolingo English Test as an Example

Aug 30, 2026

The Duolingo English Test (DET) is an online language proficiency assessment gaining global use, yet prior research shows insufficient attention to its fairness, especially from a subjective perspective. Existing studies have often emphasized objective fairness while underexamining perceptions held by test takers, and at-home test fairness remains far less studied than in-person testing. This study develops a DET Fairness Questionnaire aligned with Kunnan’s test fairness framework and collects data from 1,012 Chinese university students. Results indicate overall perceived fairness, with key effects from perceived validity and access on test performance, underscoring the need to incorporate subjective fairness into evaluation and to improve DET validity.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages19

Reading Time48 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

1 Introduction

Background and context

Rationale for focusing on subjective fairness

(Other sections not provided)

PLOS ONE OPEN ACCESS Citation: Yao D (2023) Examining the subjective fairness of at-home and online tests: Taking Duolingo English Test as an example. PLoS ONE 18(9): e0291629 . [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal). pone.0291629 Editor: Dipima Buragohain, Chulalongkorn University, THAILAND Received: April 17, 2023 Accepted: September 4, 2023 Published: September 19, 2023 Copyright: © 2023 Don Yao. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability Statement: Data are owned by a third-party organization called RSKTO (Research Services and Knowledge Transfer Office) from the University of Macau. Data request may be sent to RSKTO at [rskto@um.edu.mo](rskto@um.edu.mo). Funding: The author received no specific funding for this work. Competing interests: The author has declared that no competing interests exist. RESEARCH ARTICLE Examining the subjective fairness of at-home and online tests: Taking Duolingo English Test as an example Don Yao * Department of English, Faculty of Humanities and Foerign Languages, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, China * [donnieyao@cjlu.edu.cn](donnieyao@cjlu.edu.cn) Abstract The Duolingo English Test, a language proficiency test offered online, is now getting prevalent worldwide. A recap of existing literature denotes that there is an insufficient examination of the DET, particularly on its issues of fairness. Besides, empirical test fairness research had mainly focused on the objective aspect but may have overlooked the importance of its subjective aspect. Additionally, compared with in-person tests, the fairness research of at-home tests lags far behind. Therefore, the current study investigated the DET fairness from test takers’ perspectives. A DET Fairness Questionnaire based on (Kunnan’s AJ, 2004) Test Fairness Framework (comprising validity, absence of bias, access, administration, and social consequences) was developed. Data were collected from 1,012 Chinese university students and processed through descriptive and factor analyses. The descriptive analyses revealed that test takers perceived the DET to be fair overall. Specifically, they perceived that they had equal access to the test, but the test was invalid; the factor analyses showed that test takers’ perceptions of DET fairness (especially perceived validity and access) had a significant effect on their test performance. Such findings suggest that the subjective test fairness as an essential component could not be neglected in appraising an assessment as it influences test takers’ performance, and DET developers may strive harder to enhance the validity of DET to provide a fairer testing environment for test takers. 1 Introduction In recent years, an increasing number of Chinese students have pursued further studies abroad [ 1] . To enroll in English-medium universities, students are required to demonstrate their sound English written and spoken skills [2] . In most cases, students’ English language proficiency is represented by the grades they get in standardized English proficiency tests, e.g., TOEFL and IELTS. Chinese students, therefore, have strong desires and strive hard to pass various English language tests [3] . However, due to the Corona Virus Disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic, in-person administrations of these tests were disrupted under the worst circumstances. Subsequently, the Duolingo English Test (DET), a language proficiency test offered at home and online, became prevalent worldwide [4, 5] . PLOS ONE | [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291629](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291629) September 19, 2023 1 / 19 The DET is an English proficiency test assessing non-native English test takers’ integrated abilities, i. e., literacy, conversation, co

FAQs

What fairness perspective does the study focus on for the Duolingo English Test?

It investigates subjective fairness, examining how test takers perceive fairness rather than relying only on objective fairness factors.

How is the DET fairness questionnaire constructed in this research?

A DET Fairness Questionnaire is developed based on Kunnan’s Test Fairness Framework, covering validity, absence of bias, access, administration, and social consequences.

What factors significantly affect test takers’ DET performance?

Factor analyses show that test takers’ perceptions of DET fairness—especially perceived validity and access—have a significant effect on their test performance.

Aug 30, 2026

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