White space in assessment materials - ‘space to think’ or a ‘waste of space’?

Oct 20, 2026

In this paper, the significance of white space in test paper design is examined for high-stakes general qualifications in England. The study uses eye-tracking with 32 students (15–16) completing two abridged AQA GCSE Chemistry papers: restricted spacing versus enhanced white space. Results show longer completion times and more careful content observations with enhanced space, while restricted space relates to faster responses and more frequent rereading. Interviews indicate preference for enhanced spacing for calmer, easier reading, informing validity and assessment design.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages21

Reading Time53 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

Introduction

Construct validity

White space

Eye tracking in as

White space in assessment materials – ‘space to think’ or a ‘waste of space’? Charlotte Stephensona and Dr Bryan Maddoxb a AQA, Manchester, UK b Assessment MicroAnalytics™, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK Abstract In this paper, we explore the significance of white space in test paper design in the context of high-stakes general qualifications in England. Exams should assess a student’s ability in relation to a given construct (e.g. chemistry) . However, the influence of text layout on performance may threaten the construct validity of assessments. This research explored the effects of white space in question papers on cognitive processing – using eye-tracking methods – and respondent perceptions. The eye movements of 32 students (aged 15–16 years) were tracked as they completed two abridged AQA GCSE Chemistry papers: one with restricted spacing and one with enhanced white space. Eye-tracking data showed that respondents took longer to complete questions with enhanced white space but also made more careful observations of the question content. Conversely, restricted white space was associated with shorter response times and more frequent rereading of item content. Interview data revealed that students preferred papers with enhanced white space, reporting that the additional space made them feel calmer and that the papers were easier to read. These findings therefore suggest that the amount of white space in assessments not only impacts respondent preferences but also leads to measurable differences in assessment response processes. We discuss the implications of these findings for increasing validity in assessment design. Introduction In this paper, we describe a mixed-methods research project that explored the significance of white space in test paper design, specifically in high-stakes general qualifications (GCSEs) in England. Little is known about the effects of test paper layout, particularly the configuration of white space, on academic performance. To our knowledge, the effects of white space in question papers that contribute to high-stakes general qualifications in England have not yet been examined. We discuss the degree to which white space in assessment design may represent a source of construct-irrelevant variance in test scores , by drawing on our work that looked at the eye movements of students as they complete questions papers with varying proportions of whitespace. We consider the implications that white space has on the cognitive processes of students , and also explore students’ perceptions of white space. The paper has four main sections. In this first section, we explain why this is an important issue for investigation and introduce the emerging literature on test paper layout. In the second section, we set out the methods used to investigate our research questions. In the third section, we explain the main eye-tracking findings and outline the qualitative findings, which we elucidate using students’ words. We discuss these findings in relation to existing literature and the research questions posed. We also evaluate their dependability and explain their implications for assessment design. In the fourth and final section, we offer some conclusions that can be drawn from the research and some recommendations for assessment designers. Construct validity In the context of high-stakes general qualifications, examinations should assess a student’s ability in relation to a given construct (e.g. chemistry) while eliminating as much noise as possible. One potential source of construct-irrelevant variance that might interfere with the accuracy of educational measurement could be the ways in which information is presented and formatted in exam papers. More specifically, teachers have suggested that the amount of white space presented in GCSE science question papers could affect their accessibility. If this is the case, then instead of assessing a student’s knowledge and understanding of

FAQs

What is the main research question about white space in assessment materials?

The paper investigates how the amount and configuration of white space in question papers affects cognitive processing, student perceptions, and potential construct-irrelevant variance in test scores.

How was white space manipulated in the study?

Thirty-two students completed two abridged AQA GCSE Chemistry papers, one with restricted spacing and one with enhanced white space, while eye movements were tracked.

What did the eye-tracking and interview data suggest about student responses?

Enhanced white space was linked to longer completion times but more careful observations, whereas restricted spacing was linked to shorter response times and more rereading. Interviews showed students preferred enhanced white space because it felt calmer and was easier to read.

Oct 20, 2026

Uploaded by Alex Sinclair