Using a Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial (SMART) to Develop an Adaptive K–2 Literacy Intervention With Personalized Print Texts and App-Based Digital Activities

Oct 15, 2026

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This article develops an adaptive literacy intervention for kindergarten to Grade 2 children using a Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial (SMART) design. Stage 1 compares adaptive instruction based on either conceptually coherent texts or leveled texts, while Stage 2 targets strategies for nonresponding children. Results show similar reading comprehension gains for both text types, and improved outcomes for nonresponders when follow-up is intensified with app gamification and parent text messages. Low app access among parents underscores the need to strengthen implementation procedures to increase uptake of digital activities.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages18

Reading Time45 min

AccessFree to download

Using SMART for Adaptive K–2 Literacy Intervention

Stage 1 Text Type Comparison

Stage 2 Support for Nonresponders

Implications for Implementation and Parent Engagement

Design Components of the SMART Approach

AERA Open July-September 2019, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 1–18 DOI: 10. 1177/2332858419872701 Article reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)© The Author(s) 2019. [http://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero](http://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero) Using a Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial (SMART) to Develop an Adaptive K–2 Literacy Intervention With Personalized Print Texts and App-Based Digital Activities James S. Kim Catherine A. Asher Mary Burkhauser Laura Mesite Harvard University Diana Leyva University of Pittsburgh This study employs a sequential multiple assignment randomized trial (SMART) design to develop an adaptive intervention with personalized print and digital content for kindergarten to Grade 2 children (n = 273). In Stage 1, we ask whether it is better for children to receive an adaptive intervention based on (a) 10 conceptually coherent texts or (b) 10 leveled texts on a range of topics. In Stage 2, we ask how best to encourage nonresponding children. Findings indicate that children who received either conceptually coherent texts or leveled texts performed similarly on reading comprehension posttests, while augmenting and intensifying follow-up with gamification of the app and text messages to parents improved comprehension outcomes for nonresponders. Descriptively, we find that only 26%(n = 71) of parents accessed the app, highlighting the need for better implementation procedures to increase take up of app-based digital activities. Keywords: sequential multiple assignment randomized trial, personalization, adaptive interventions, education apps, literacy, reading, early elementary Literacy interventions that use technology to personalize content and activities are an increasingly common evidence-based approach for improving student outcomes (Almirall, Kasari, McCaffrey, & Nahum-Shani, 2018; Connor, 2019) . For example, using information on children’s prior knowledge and performance to adapt print and digital content is a popular intervention strategy for improving learning (U.S. Department of Education, 2016; Walkington & Bernacki, 2018) . Adaptive treatment strategies, or adaptive interventions, are tailored to meet the individual needs of students and include decision rules to guide whether, when, and how best to offer treatment components over time (Almirall, Nahum-Shani, Sherwood, & Murphy, 2014) . In particular, adaptive literacy interventions closely mirror typical practice conditions in which complex bundles of treatments are frequently modified to support individual learners. In typical practice conditions, educators are likely to confront two critical questions as they implement an adaptive intervention: Which intervention components should be implemented first? And what kinds of follow-up are needed to support children who do not adequately respond to the initial intervention components? To date, researchers have employed the standard randomized controlled trial (RCT) design to test the efficacy of adaptive interventions relative to a control group (Hedges, 2018) . As a result, it is difficult to identify what works for whom and how best to support individual learners who inevitably differ in how they respond to various intervention components. This article describes the development of a novel adaptive literacy intervention that aims to improve reading comprehension among elementary grade children from low-income households during the summer months (Alexander, Entwisle, & Olson, 2007) . We illustrate how a sequential multiple assignment randomized trial (SMART) design can be used to develop an adaptive literacy intervention with personalized print texts and app-based activities for kindergarten to Grade 2 children. Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License ([http://www.creative

FAQs

What is the SMART purpose in this literacy intervention study?

The study uses SMART to build and refine a multicomponent adaptive intervention by assigning treatment components across multiple stages based on decision rules and student outcomes over time.

How did the two text approaches compare in Stage 1?

Children receiving either conceptually coherent texts or leveled texts showed similar performance on reading comprehension posttests.

What improved outcomes for nonresponding children in Stage 2?

Augmenting and intensifying follow-up with app gamification and text messages to parents improved comprehension outcomes for nonresponders.

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by Cart