The Roles of Education and Literacy in the Digital Divide Among Middle-Aged Adults - CrossNational Evidence from the United States, Japan, and South Korea

Oct 15, 2026

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Internationally representative data on middle-aged adults (45–65) from the 2012 Program for International Assessment of Adult Competencies were analyzed to clarify how education and literacy relate to the digital divide. Survey-weighted binary logistic regressions show that both educational attainment and literacy are positively linked to all four ICT measures—computer, email, online information, and online transactions—in the United States, Japan, and South Korea. Those in the United States gain more from education for email and online information. Findings suggest targeted education, basic-skills support, and additional ICT training can reduce later-life digital disparities despite cultural and economic differences.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages13

Reading Time33 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

Research question and data source

Methods and key findings

Implications for education and ICT training

ADULT LITERACY EDUCATION WINTER 2024 | [http://doi.org/10.35847/TYamashita.GKim.CLiou.TAndo.ABardo.DLiu.6.1.4](http://doi.org/10.35847/TYamashita.GKim.CLiou.TAndo.ABardo.DLiu.6.1.4) | | | --- | --- | | | Research Article | The Roles of Education and Literacy in the Digital Divide Among Middle-Aged Adults: CrossNational Evidence from the United States, Japan, and South Korea Takashi Yamashita, University of Maryland, Baltimore County Giyeon Kim, Chung-Ang University Chih-Ling Liou, Kent State University Takatoshi Ando, Yokohama National University Anthony R. Bardo, University of Kentucky Darren Liu, West Virginia University Abstract Internationally representative data of middle-aged adults 45 – 65 years old [n(United States) = 2,150; n(Japan) = 2,318; n(South Korea) = 2,800] from the 2012 Program for International Assessment of Adult Competencies were analyzed to examine the roles of education and literacy in relation to the digital divide. Results from survey-weighted binary logistic regressions showed that both educational attainment and literacy were positively associated with all four measures of information and communication technology (use of the computer, email, online information and transaction) use in all three countries. The middle-aged adults in the United States benefited more from the educational attainment than those in Japan, in terms of email and online information use. The middle-aged adults with lower education and basic skills (i.e., literacy) may benefit from the educational intervention and additional information and communication technology training, and in turn, improve the digital divide in later life, regardless of differences in culture and economy. Keywords: International; education; information technology; East Asian countries Disproportionate access to information and communication technology (ICT) by sub-populations such as older adults and adults with lower socioeconomic status, referenced asthe digital divide, was a significant concern of economically developed nations in the late 20th and early 21st century (Light, 2001). While the overall patterns of the digital divide have been documented, a large amount of heterogeneity in both ICT use and skill levels remains among adult populations (Ono & Zavodny, 2007). Considering the importance of ICT use to help prevent socioeconomic and health disadvantages in later life (Pruchno, 2019), this study focuses on middle-aged adults. The present study was framed by two theories: resources and appropriation theory (van Dijk, 2013) and diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 2003). The first posits that ICT use is largely determined by a collection of personal and positional characteristics, and the latter emphasizes a need to examine these characteristics from a life course perspective. Personal and positional characteristics include sociodemographic factors that reflect one’s rank within a hierarchical distribution of resources (e.g., income, Correspondence: [gkim@cau.ac.kr](gkim@cau.ac.kr 4)[ 4](gkim@cau.ac.kr 4) time, motivation, human capital) over the life course. For example, those with higher income, more available time, and greater motivation (both to learn and use ICT) are likely to use ICT more. In turn, one’s rank can be understood to either limit or enhance ICT use (van Dijk, 2017). ICT use is further determined by one’s digital literacy (van Dijk, 2013) . ICT disparities reflect a balance between opportunity and risk exposure in earlier life stages, and this balance differs across age groups (Ferraro et al., 2009). In view of the diffusion of innovation theory (Rogers, 2003), middle-aged adults whose formative years occurred prior to the 1990s, when ICT infrastructure was limited, may have lacked opportunity to develop strong digital literacy skills. Moreover, middle-aged adults may also have diverse perceptions and attitudes towards ICT (Backonja et al., 2014) . These issues point to a need to develop a greater under

FAQs

What data and age group does the study analyze?

The study analyzes internationally representative data of middle-aged adults aged 45–65 from the 2012 Program for International Assessment of Adult Competencies across the United States, Japan, and South Korea.

How are education and literacy related to ICT use according to the results?

Both educational attainment and literacy are positively associated with all four ICT measures: computer use, email use, online information use, and online transactions in all three countries.

What does the study suggest for reducing the digital divide in later life?

Adults with lower education and basic skills may benefit from educational interventions and additional ICT training, which can help improve the digital divide in later life despite differences in culture and economy.

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by Đào