The Role of Central and Peripheral Hormones in Sexual and Violent Recidivism in Sex Offenders

Sep 27, 2026

A large community follow-up study examined how central and peripheral endocrine factors relate to sexual offending outcomes, focusing on gonadotrophic hormones and androgen levels in adult male sex offenders. Gonadotrophic hormones correlated with self-reported hostility and showed stronger prediction of recidivism than testosterone. Hostility served as a partial mediator linking gonadotrophic hormones to recidivism. Findings suggest a promising direction for further investigation into hormonal mechanisms underlying sexual aggression and reoffending.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryHealthcare

FormatPDF

Pages10

Reading Time25 min

AccessFree to download

Hormonal mechanisms in sexual offending

Study design and follow-up outcomes

Androgens, aggression, and sexual behavior

Testosterone pathways and prior evidence

Androgens and sexual offending

R E G U L A R A R T I C L E The Role of Central and Peripheral Hormones in Sexual and Violent Recidivism in Sex Offenders Drew A. Kingston, PhD, Michael C. Seto, PhD, Adekunle G. Ahmed, MB, BS, Paul Fedoroff, MD, Philip Firestone, PhD, and John M. Bradford, MB, ChB Hormonal factors are important in multifactorial theories of sexual offending. The relationship between hormones and aggression in nonhumans is well established, but the putative effect in humans is more complex, and the direction of the effect is usually unclear. In this study, a large sample (N 􀀁 771) of adult male sex offenders was assessed between 1982 and 1996. Gonadotrophic (follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and androgen hormone (total and free testosterone; T) levels were assessed at Time 1, along with indicators of sex drive and hostility. Individuals were observed up to 20 years in the community, with an average time at risk of 10.9 years (SD 4.6). Gonadotrophic hormones correlated positively with self-reported hostility and were better predictors of recidivism than was T (area under the curve (AUC), 0.58–0.63). Self-reported hostility emerged asa partial mediator of this relationship between gonadotrophic hormones and recidivism. These results point to a potentially new area of investigation for hormones and sexual aggression. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 40:476–85, 2012 Neurobiological factors are considered important in multifactorial theories of sexual offending, and androgenic hormones have been specifically implicated in the elicitation of both sexual and aggressive behaviors. 1,2 Testosterone (T) is the primary circulating androgen in men. Its production is initiated when gonadotrophin-releasing hormone is secreted from the hypothalamus. T is mostly bound to plasma proteins in the blood, with approximately two percent being in an unbound (free) form. It has been suggested that the free form of T is physiologically the most active,3 but the bound portion may also have effects.4 In males, T levels rise in utero and again dramatically at puberty. T has both organizational Dr. Kingston is Psychologist, St. Lawrence Valley Correctional and Treatment Centre, Dr. Seto is Director of Forensic Rehabilitation Research, Dr. Ahmed isAssociate ChiefofForensics, and Dr. Bradford is Clinical Director of the Forensic Treatment Unit, Royal Ottawa Health Group, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Fedoroff is Director of the Forensic Research Institute of Mental Health Research, Royal Ottawa Health Care Group, and Head, Division of Forensic Psychiatry, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Dr. Firestone is Professor ofPsychology and Psychiatry, University ofOttawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Address correspondence to DrewA. Kingston, PhD, Brockville Mental Health Centre, Royal Ottawa Health Care Group, 1804 Highway 2 East, Brockville, Ontario, Canada K6V 5V8 . E-mail: [drew.kingston@theroyal.ca](drew.kingston@theroyal.ca). Disclosures of financial or other potential conflicts of interest: None. and activational effects on physical development, mood, and behavior in males.5 Androgens and Aggression Androgens such asT are related to male aggression across vertebrate species.6–8 Animal research studies have consistently shown that aggression appears atthe onset of gonadal puberty,7,9 is reduced by castration, and can be restored by treatment with exogenous androgens. 10,11 The ethological evidence suggests that androgens influence aggression in humans. The relationship between androgens and sexual activity and aggression in humans is more complex than that demonstrated invertebrate species, because of cognitive, emotional, social, and contextual factors.7 In a meta-analysis, 12 the authors examined this question by reviewing 45 studies of human participants (total n 􀀁 9, 760); the results demonstrated a correlation of 0.14 between T and aggression. A reanalysis of these data after correcting for methodological problems, such as the in

FAQs

What hormones were assessed in the study of adult male sex offenders?

The study measured gonadotrophic hormones (follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and androgen hormone levels, including total and free testosterone, along with indicators of sex drive and hostility.

Which hormone category predicted recidivism better, and why is hostility important?

Gonadotrophic hormones predicted recidivism better than testosterone, and self-reported hostility acted as a partial mediator between gonadotrophic hormones and recidivism.

How do androgens relate to aggression and sexual behavior based on the background evidence?

Across vertebrate research, androgens have been linked to male aggression and sexual motivation, with castration reducing aggression and androgen treatment restoring it; human evidence is described as more complex due to cognitive, emotional, social, and contextual factors.

Sep 27, 2026

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