Tests of Learning or Testing for Learning? An Exploratory Study of Motivation and Language Learning Strategies Among HSK Level 1-3 Test-takers in UK

Sep 15, 2026

This in-depth study evaluates motivation, learning strategies, and demographic factors among early-stage Chinese HSK test-takers, focusing on how patterns differ when Chinese character knowledge becomes required at higher levels. Seventy-one UK-based participants across HSK levels 1 to 3 were analyzed using quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews. Results show similar patterns across levels, with few demographic effects, higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation, and greater meaning-focused strategy use. Pinyin can improve beginner accessibility, yet character commitment remains evident. Findings also discuss limitations of HSK format as a linguistic ability test and consider broader implications for early L2 Mandarin development.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages21

Reading Time53 min

AccessFree to download

1 Introduction

2 Background to Study

2.1 Learning and assessing Chinese

Article Tests of Learning or Testing for Learning? An Exploratory Study of Motivation and Language Learning Strategies Among HSK Level 1-3 Test-takers in UK Clare Wright* University of Leeds, UK Yang Lu University of Nottingham, UK April Jiawei Zhang Macau University of Science and Technology, SAR China Lulu Zhang Ying Zheng University of Southampton, UK Received: 27 July, 2021/Accepted: 28 January, 2022/Published: 30 October, 2022 Abstract This in-depth study evaluated motivation, learning strategies and demographic factors among earlylevel Chinese HSK test-takers, predicting differences at higher test levels when Chinese character knowledge is required. 71 UK-based HSK test-takers from beginner (1/2) to intermediate (3) levels were recruited; using quantitative survey and qualitative interviews, test-taker characteristics were analysed. However, findings revealed similar patterns at all three levels, and few effects of demographic factors. Higher levels of intrinsic than extrinsic motivation, and higher use of meaningfocused learning strategies were found across levels, although learners may start with structurebased priorities at beginner levels, especially in female learners. Including pinyin made beginnerlevel HSK exams seem more accessible, but commitment to learning characters was also evident at beginner stages. Noting limitations in the HSK exam format as a test of linguistic abilities, the findings are evaluated for wider pedagogical implications for effective early-stage L2 Mandarin Chinese language development. Keywords Motivation, language learning strategies, HSK levels 1-3, test-taker characteristics, Chinese characters, pinyin *Corresponding author. Email: [C.E.M.Wright@leeds.ac.uk](C.E.M.Wright@leeds.ac.uk) 1 Introduction The aim of this study is to add to existing understanding of how assessment may play a role in fostering effective L2 Mandarin Chinese (henceforth Chinese) language development. As part of a wider project funded by Chinese Testing International (CTI), known as Hankao International, this study explored factors impacting on progress up from beginner to intermediate level, to see if there are marked differences between levels 1 and 2, which do not require character knowledge for the assessment, compared to level 3, which does. In line with other studies of learner attitudes in examination-focused language learning settings (Wanget al., 2009; Yu, 2010), three key aspects were identified for this study-first, different kinds of motivation (personal, community, or global); then, the use of different kinds of learning strategies (structure or meaning-based), and finally, challenges in learning written Chinese and using pinyin. By using a mixed methods approach through quantitative surveys and in-depth interviews, the project took a rich in-depth approach to discover what makes for a successfully motivated Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi (HSK) test-taker, testing assumptions that there would be changes in motivation and strategies between level 1 and 2 testtakers compared to level 3 test-takers. To our knowledge, no such cross-sectional study of early stage anglophone HSK test-takers has been carried out before, though see a sister paper from this project (Zheng et al., 2021), and the study thus aims to provide helpful insights and guidance to learners, teachers, and assessors about the learning journey facing HSK test-takers. 2 Background to Study Notions of motivation and learning strategies, particularly in relation to exam-based instruction, have long been influenced by Gardner’s ( 1985) early definition of“the extent to which an individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity”(Gardner, 1985, p. 10) . Later models of motivation also distinguish between instrumental or extrinsic benefits, e.g. in taking high stakes tests, and integrative or intrinsic benefits, e.g. in developing general

FAQs

What question does the study investigate about early-stage HSK learning?

The study examines how assessment may foster effective L2 Mandarin Chinese development and whether motivation and learning strategies differ as learners progress from beginner to intermediate levels.

How were participants and data collected in the research?

Seventy-one UK-based HSK test-takers from levels 1 to 3 were recruited, and their characteristics were analyzed using a mixed-method approach: quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews.

What were the key findings regarding motivation and learning strategies across HSK levels?

Findings show similar patterns across all three levels, higher intrinsic than extrinsic motivation, and higher use of meaning-focused learning strategies at every level, with few effects from demographic factors.

Sep 15, 2026

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