Technology, Skills, and Globalization - Explaining International Differences in Routine and Nonroutine Work Using Survey Data

Jul 19, 2026

The shift from routine work to nonroutine cognitive work is a defining trend in global labor markets, yet evidence is limited on how job tasks vary for workers performing the same occupations across countries. Using survey-based measures of routine task intensity (RTI) aligned with the U.S. O*NET database for 47 countries, the study documents substantial cross-country differences in task content within occupations. It evaluates how technology, skills supply, globalization, and economic structure predict RTI and quantifies each factor’s contribution, finding technology the dominant driver.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages22

Reading Time55 min

Introduction

Routine vs nonroutine work and task variation across countries

Measuring routine task intensity with survey data

Explaining RTI: technology, skills, globalization, and economic structure

Pub lic Disclosure Authorized Pub lic Disclosure Authorized The World Bank Economic Review, 36(3), 2022, 687–708 [https://doi.org10.1093/wber/lhac005](https://doi.org10.1093/wber/lhac005) Article Technology, Skills, and Globalization: Explaining International Differences in Routine and Nonroutine Work Using Survey Data Piotr Lewandowski, Albert Park, Wojciech Hardy, Yang Du, and Saier Wu Abstract The shift from routine work to nonroutine cognitive work is a key feature of labor markets globally, but there is little evidence on the extent to which tasks differ among workers performing the same jobs in different countries. This paper constructs survey-based measures of routine task intensity (RTI) of jobs consistent with those based on the U.S. O*NET database for workers in 47 countries. It confirms substantial cross-country differences in the content of work within occupations. The extent to which workers’ RTI is predicted by technology, supply of skills, globalization, and economic structure is assessed; and their contribution to the variation in RTI across countries is quantified. Technology is by far the most important factor. Supply of skills is next in importance, especially for workers in high-skilled occupations, while globalization is more important than skills for workers in low-skilled occupations. Occupational structure explains only about one-fifth of cross-country variation in RTI. JEL classification: J21, J23, J24 Keywords: tasks, jobs, labor, technology, globalization 1. Introduction In recent years, there has been an explosion of interest in how new technologies and globalization affect the nature of work. Economists have found the analysis of changes in job tasks to be a fruitful way to understand how labor market outcomes are influenced by these twin forces (Acemoglu and Autor 2011; Piotr Lewandowski (corresponding author) is a director and economist at the Institute for Structural Research (IBS), Warsaw, Poland; his email is [piotr.lewandowski@ibs.org.pl. Albert](piotr.lewandowski@ibs.org.pl. Albert) Park is chief economist of the Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines, and chair professor at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong; his email is [afpark@adb.org. Wojciech Hardy is](afpark@adb.org. Wojciech Hardy is) an assistant professor at the Faculty of Economic Sciences of the University of Warsaw; his email [is whardy@wne.uw.edu.pl. Yang Du is a professor](is whardy@wne.uw.edu.pl. Yang Du is a professor) at the Institute of Population and Labor Economics of the Chinese Academy of Social Science; his email [is duyang@cass.org.cn. Saier Wu is a PhD candidate](is duyang@cass.org.cn. Saier Wu is a PhD candidate) at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong; her email is [saier.wu@connect.ust.hk. The](saier.wu@connect.ust.hk. The) authors thank Peng Jia, Cheng Jie, and Zeyang Yu for their excellent research assistance, Emily Pawlowski of the American Institutes for Research provides help with using the US PIAAC restricted data. Thanks also go to the participants of ASSA2019 in Atlanta, Georgia; EALE2018 in Lyon, France; Jobs and Development Conference 2018 in Bogotá, Colombia; TASKS V in Bonn, Germany; thanks also go to participants in seminars at UCSD, The World Bank, and Princeton University, and in workshops in Beijing, Geneva, Luxembourg, and Warsaw for their insightful comments. The authors acknowledge support from the Hong Kong Research Grants Council General Research Fund, grant no. 16504217, and from International Bank for Reconstruction and Development FY2016 Development Grant Facility, grant no. 502916-05. The usual disclaimers apply. All errors are the authors’own. A supplementary online appendix is available for this article at the World Bank Economic Review website. © The Author(s) 2022 . Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / THE WORLD BANK. All rights re

FAQs

What problem does the paper address about labor markets?

It examines how job tasks differ among workers in the same occupations across different countries, focusing on the transition from routine to nonroutine cognitive work.

How does the study measure routine task intensity (RTI)?

It constructs survey-based RTI measures for occupations across 47 countries, consistent with indices derived from the U.S. O*NET database.

Which factors most strongly explain cross-country differences in RTI?

Technology is the most important factor. Skills supply matters next, especially for high-skilled occupations, while globalization is more important for low-skilled occupations.

Jul 19, 2026

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