Socioeconomic and Parental Effects on ENEM Achievement - Evidence from Brazilian Microdata (2015-2023) - Research Article

Sep 6, 2026

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This study investigates how family income and parental education shape candidate performance on the Brazilian National High School Exam (ENEM) across 2015–2023, accounting for Brazil’s five macro-regions. Using INEP microdata, it analyzes examinees who attended both test days and achieved valid scores (≥100) in all knowledge areas and the essay. Descriptive and comparative methods assess gaps by income bracket, parental schooling, school origin, and regional context. Findings show a persistent socioeconomic gradient, with higher-income and better-educated parents linked to up to 150-point score advantages, a maternal advantage, and re-emerging inequalities after COVID compression. Results support policies combining school interventions with family- and community-oriented strategies to reduce entrenched educational inequality.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages6

Reading Time15 min

AccessFree to download

Introduction

ENEM as a gateway and assessment instrument

Socioeconomic and cultural capital: income and parental education

Research gap: need for longitudinal, region-aware evidence

Methods and dataset (planned)

INEP microdata and nine-year window

Recent Advances in Evolution of Education and Outreach OPEN ACCESS JOURNAL Journal DOI: [https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/raeeo](https://dx.doi.org/10.17352/raeeo) Research Article Socioeconomic and Parental Effects on ENEM Achievement: Evidence from Brazilian Microdata (2015–2023) César Cândido Xavier1 and Carlo Kleber da Silva Rodrigues2* 1Uniso – Universidade de Sorocaba, Sorocaba, SP, Brazil 2Center for Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, SP, Brazil Submitted : 09 February, 2026 Accepted : 13 February, 2026 Published : 14 February, 2026 *Corresponding author: Carlo Kleber da Silva Rodrigues, Center for Mathematics, Computing and Cognition, Federal University of ABC (UFABC), Santo André, SP, Brazil, E-mail: [carlo.kleber@ufabc.edu.br](carlo.kleber@ufabc.edu.br) [Keywords:](Keywords: ENEM)[ ENEM](Keywords: ENEM); Family income; Parental education; Educational inequality; Brazil; Longitudinal analysis Copyright License: © 2026 Xavier CC, et al. This isan open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. [https://www.biolscigroup.com](https://www.biolscigroup.com) Abstract This study investigates the inﬂuence of family income and parental education on the performance of candidates in the Brazilian National High School Exam (ENEM) from 2015 to 2023, considering the ﬁve macro-regions of Brazil. Using INEP microdata, the analysis focuses on candidates who attended both exam days and obtained valid scores (≥100 points) in all knowledge areas and the essay component. Descriptive statistics and comparative analyses were employed to examine performance differentials across income brackets, parental education levels, school origin, and regional contexts. The results reveal a robust and persistent socioeconomic gradient: candidates from higher-income households and those whose parents hold higher education or postgraduate degrees scored, on average, up to 150 points higher than their peers from the lowest strata. Maternal education exhibited a slightly stronger association with performance than paternal education, while the joint effect of highly educated parents showed a complementary impact beyond individual contributions. Although the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily compressed performance disparities, inequalities reemerged by 2023, indicating strong structural persistence. The ﬁndings highlight the central role of family socioeconomic and cultural capital in shaping educational outcomes and underscore the need for educational policies that integrate school-based interventions with broader family-and community-oriented strategies to mitigate long-standing inequalities in access to higher education. Introduction The Brazilian National High School Exam (ENEM) has become the main gateway to higher education in Brazil, serving as a uniﬁed selection mechanism for public and private universities and as a key instrument for educational policy and social inclusion programs. Beyond its role in admission processes, ENEM functions as a large-scale assessment capable of revealing structural inequalities embedded in the Brazilian education system. Understanding the determinants of student performance in this exam is therefore crucial for both academic research and public policy design [1-6] . Among the factors most consistently associated with educational outcomes, family income and parental education stand out as central dimensions of socioeconomic and cultural capital. Classical and contemporary sociological theories emphasize that academic achievement is not solely a product of individual effort or cognitive ability, but rather the outcome of cumulative advantages linked to family resources, educational practices, and social expectations. In this context, parental education reﬂects l

FAQs

What factors are examined in relation to ENEM performance?

The study focuses on family income and parental education as the key explanatory dimensions for ENEM outcomes.

What data and time span does the analysis use?

It uses INEP microdata covering ENEM administrations from 2015 to 2023, with attention to Brazil’s five macro-regions.

How persistent are socioeconomic inequalities in ENEM results according to the study?

A robust and persistent socioeconomic gradient is reported, and inequalities compress temporarily during COVID-19 but reemerge by 2023.

Sep 6, 2026

Upload by Finn