Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics, and Basic Skills of the Nonformal Distance Education Participants Among Adults in the US

Oct 15, 2026

Despite growing demand for distance education, national-level knowledge about who participates and their baseline capabilities remains limited in the United States. This study uses US data from the 2012/2014 and 2017 rounds of PIAAC to examine adults aged 25–65 participating in nonformal distance education, meaning learning not leading to formal credentials. Higher educational attainment, employment, literacy, and digital problem-solving skills correlate positively with participation, highlighting digital skill concerns. The results guide policy to reduce education gaps and support future work on psychological and behavioral factors.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

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Pages20

Reading Time50 min

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Abstract

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Introduction

Distance Education for Adult Learners

Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics, and Basic Skills of the Nonformal Distance Education Participants Among Adults in the US Takashi Yamashita1 , Jing Zhang2, Na Sun3 , and Phyllis A. Cummins4 Adult Education Quarterly 2022, Vol. 72(3) 242–261 © The Author(s) 2021 Article reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/07417136211044509](DOI: 10.1177/07417136211044509)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/07417136211044509)[journals.sagepub.com/home/aeq](journals.sagepub.com/home/aeq) Abstract Despite increasing demand in distance education, relatively little is known about the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics as well as basic skill levels of adult distance education participants at the national level in the US. This study analyzed the US data from the 2012/2014 and 2017 Program for International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) to identify baseline determinants of nonformal (i.e., not fora formal credential or degree) distance education among adults aged between 25 and 65 years old. Results showed that higher educational attainment, employment, literacy skills, and digital problem-solving skills were positively associated with nonformal distance education participation. As recent distance education is provided predominantly through the internet and digital device, digital skills may be of particular concern. These identiﬁed determinants should be reﬂected in policy interventions to close education gaps. Additionally, the ﬁndings of this study are useful for future research that focuses on psychological and behavioral factors. 1 Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Public Health, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA 2Department of Statistics, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA 3Department of Sociology and Gerontology, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA 4The Scripps Gerontology Center, Miami University, Oxford, OH, USA Corresponding Author: Takashi Yamashita, Department of Sociology, Anthropology, and Public Health, University of Maryland, Public Policy Building, PUP252, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250, USA. Email: [yamataka@umbc.edu](yamataka@umbc.edu) Keywords lifelong education, adult education, online education, literacy, digital skills Introduction Distance Education for Adult Learners Distance education is “all forms of teaching and learning where the student and instructor are separated geographically and temporally” (Finch & Jacobs, 2012, p. 546) . Whereas the idea of distance education originated in the 1800s, distance education has been progressively conducted in online environments due to the internet that became widely available in the early 1990s in the US (Sun & Chen, 2016) . Online education/training is “a form of distance education where technology mediates the learning process; teaching is delivered completely using the internet” (Siemens et al., 2015, p. 100) . Combinations of different education delivery modes (e.g., online and face-to-face) are often called hybrid or blended learning (Littenberg-Tobias & Reich, 2020) . Although other names such as e-learning and computer-mediated learning are commonly used to describe online education, and massive open online courses are becoming popular, distance education is an umbrella term (Park & Shea, 2020) . The concept of distance education is useful because it captures an increasingly diverse mode of adult education, learning, and training in the technology-rich societies today. If, for example, online learning is strictly deﬁned, essential forms of learning such as hybrid learning may be overlooked. Distance education arguably is more inclusive than traditional face-to-face adult education. Although depending on the type and delivery of distance education, time and space limitations are of less concern (Gorard et al., 2003; Kara et al., 2019) . As such, adults with limited mob

FAQs

What is the study’s focus regarding nonformal distance education?

It examines sociodemographic and socioeconomic characteristics and basic skill levels of adult nonformal distance education participants at the national level in the US.

What data sources and age group does the study use?

The study analyzes US data from PIAAC 2012/2014 and 2017, focusing on adults aged 25 to 65.

Which factors show a positive association with participation?

Higher educational attainment, employment, literacy skills, and digital problem-solving skills are positively associated with participation in nonformal distance education.

Oct 15, 2026

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