Sex, early life adversity, and negative self-evaluation shape the association between negative life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence

Sep 29, 2026

Adolescent depression is a growing public-health concern, yet the role of sex and early life adversity in shaping how negative life events relate to depressive symptoms remains unclear. This study analyzed 388 observations from 97 adolescents (11–17 years) repeatedly assessed over 12 months for self-reported negative events and depression symptoms. Higher between-person negative events predicted greater total depressive symptoms, especially dysphoric mood and somatic complaints. Females with higher between-person negative events showed larger increases in negative self-evaluation symptoms. Among adolescents with high ELA exposure, negative events also predicted more depressive symptoms over time, supporting sex-specific prevention targets.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryHealthcare

FormatPDF

Pages11

Reading Time28 min

AccessFree to download

Study aim and background

Stress and depression in adolescence

Early life adversity and stress sensitization

Methods and sample

Measurements of negative events and depressive symptoms

Results

Between-person versus within-person effects

Sex differences in symptom trajectories

Effects among adolescents with high ELA exposure

Implications for prevention

[www. nature.com/scientificreports](www. nature.com/scientificreports) OPEN Sex, early life adversity, and negative self-evaluation shape the association between negative life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence Kate Ryan Kuhlman1,2,3􀀍, Elizabeth E. Antici1, Haley Dveirin1, Mai-Lan M. Tran1, Natalie A. Hall1, Paul Delacruz1 & Julienne E. Bower3,4 Adolescent depression is an increasing public health concern. Recent experiences of negative events are associated with an increase in depressive symptoms and onset of major depression, but how factors such as sex and early life adversity (ELA) influence this association remains unclear. Data included 388 observations comprised of self-reported negative events and depressive symptoms measured every 4 months across a 12-month period by 97 adolescents oversampled for ELA and aged 11–17 (46.4% female). Higher between-person averages in negative events were associated with greater total depressive symptoms, specifically dysphoric mood and somatic complaints. Withinperson variability in negative events was not associated with total depressive symptoms or any symptom subscales. Females with higher between-person negative events reported larger increases in negative self-evaluation symptoms than males. Among adolescents with high ELA exposure, higher between-person negative events were associated with more total depressive symptoms and increasing symptoms over time. The present data supported the well-established association between negative events and depressive symptoms, particularly negative self-evaluation symptoms and among females. Data support efforts to prevent depression among ELA-exposed adolescents regardless of ongoing stress exposure as well as sex-specific symptom targets that may mitigate risk. Keywords Stress, Depression, Adolescence, Early life adversity, Sex differences Depression is a leading contributor to the global burden of disease, with a large personal, societal, and economic cost1. There is a large literature showing that stress contributes to depression2–4, with more recent reviews asserting a continued need to understand risk factors for first-onset and models that account for the differential susceptibility to depression in the context of stress among females. Risk for psychiatric disorders, including major depressive disorder (MDD), rises rapidly during adolescence5,6. Indeed, the prevalence of depression among 12-year-olds is 4% but rises to almost 14% by age 157. The present study aimed to advance our understanding of how stress contributes to depression-onset by modeling the association between negative life events and depressive symptoms as measured serially across a 12-month period in a sample of adolescents oversampled for early life adversity (ELA; a risk factor for depression onset in adolescence) but without any history of MDD. Negative life events are consistently associated with an increase in depressive symptoms, and are robust predictors of major depression onset2–4,8. Negative life events include undesirable, severe incidents such as serious threats to core relationships or occupation, or significant negative changes to finances or health9. Those who develop depression are 2.5 to 9.4 times more likely to have faced a major negative life event before their first episode of depression4, 10. Not all those who experience negative life events develop depression, though adolescents may be more vulnerable to this pathway to depression. The simultaneous development of neural, 1Department of Psychology, School of Social Ecology, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. 2Institute for Interdisciplinary Salivary Bioscience, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. 3Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90097, USA. 4Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 9

FAQs

What was the main research question of the study?

The study examined how sex and early life adversity influence the association between negative life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence.

How were negative life events and depressive symptoms measured?

Participants self-reported negative events and depressive symptoms were measured repeatedly every 4 months across a 12-month period.

What did the study find about between-person and within-person variability in negative events?

Between-person average negative events were associated with greater total depressive symptoms, while within-person variability in negative events showed no association with total depressive symptoms or symptom subscales.

Sep 29, 2026

Uploaded by Jordan Avery