Schooling Effects on Early Literacy Skills of Young Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by Stanley

Examines how preschool and early schooling influence early literacy outcomes for young deaf and hard of hearing children. Using piecewise growth curve modeling, the study tracks phonological awareness, letter-word identification, and vocabulary growth from ages 3–5 across two years of schooling and the intervening summer (N=56). Cochlear implants and hearing aids, plus spoken or sign language communication modes, are considered as factors. Results show significant growth during schooling but not during summer, emphasizing the importance of universal early education to build foundational skills before formal entry.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages23

Reading Time58 min

AccessFree to download

Schooling Effects and Young DHH Learners

Language and Literacy Skills

Identification of Letters and Words

Phonological Awareness

Scott, J. A., Goldberg, H., Connor, C. M., & Lederberg, A. R. (2019). Schooling effects on early literacy skills of young deaf and hard of hearing children. American Annals of the Deaf, 163(5), 596–618. Schooling Effects on Early Literacy Skills of Young Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children Jessica A. Scott, Hanah Goldberg, Carol McDonald Connor, and Amy R. Lederberg Already well documented for hearing children, schooling’s effects on early literacy skills for young students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) were examined for the first time in the present study. Piecewise growth curve modeling was used to describe 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old students’ growth in phonological awareness, letter-word identification, and vocabulary during 2 years of schooling and the intervening summer (N = 56) . Amplification mode was cochlear implants for 45% of the sample and hearing aids for 54%. Classroom communication mode was spoken language only (for 61%) or sign language (39%). Across all skills, significant growth occurred during the 2 years of schooling but not during the summer. These findings underscore early education’s importance in promoting DHH children’s critical early skills. Universal preschool intervention, including during summer, may be important in ensuring that DHH children have an adequate foundation when schooling begins. Keywords: early literacy, early intervention, language development, schooling effects, deaf, hard of hearing Language and literacy skills developed during the preschool years are foundational for later school success. Many deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children enter formal schooling, typically about 5 years of age, with inadequate language and literacy skills (Cupples, Ching, Crowe, Day, & Seeto, 2014; Kyle & Harris, 2011; Webb, Lederberg, Branum-Martin, & Connor, 2015). For hearing children, there is evidence that preschool intervention can lead to improvement in these early skills (Love et al., 2005; Skibbe, Grimm, Bowles, & Morrison, 2012) . Less evidence exists for DHH children. A few studies show that researcher-designed interventions during preschool can improve targeted language and literacy skills of DHH children (see, e.g., Lund & Douglas, 2016; Richels, Schwartz, Bobzien, & Raver, 2016; Wang, Spychala, Harris, & Oetting, 2013) . While this research indicates that these skills are responsive to intervention, it does not show whether early schooling specifically has an effect on their development. The goal of the present article is to present evidence that schooling during the preschool years, specifically when children are ages 3–5 years, leads to increased growth in DHH children’s language and literacy skills relative to when such children are not in school. Scott is an assistant professor of deaf education, Department of Learning Sciences, Georgia State University, Atlanta. Goldberg is director of research and policy, Georgia Early Education Alliance for Ready Students, Atlanta. Connor is Chancellor’s Professor, School of Education, University of California, Irvine. Lederberg is a Regents Professor of Educational Psychology, Department of Learning Sciences, Georgia State University. Schooling Effects and Young DHH Learners 597 One way to demonstrate the effects of schooling is to compare rates of growth during the school year to rates during the summer, when children are not in school. In the present study, we examined the growth of three foundational skills—identification of letters and words, phonological awareness (PA), and vocabulary—over a 2-year period among DHH children who were enrolled in preschool through kindergarten classes taught by teachers of the deaf. We also examined whether children’s chronological age in the fall of the first year of the study (i.e., whether they were 3 or 4 years old) and use of audiological technology (i.e., cochlear implants or hearing aids) influenced schooling effects. Language and Literacy Skills In the present study, we were specif

FAQs

What research question does the study address?

The study investigates whether schooling during ages 3–5 leads to greater growth in deaf and hard of hearing children’s language and literacy skills compared with periods when they are not in school.

How were schooling effects measured?

Growth during the school year was compared with growth during the summer using piecewise growth curve modeling across letter-word identification, phonological awareness, and vocabulary.

What were the main findings about when growth occurred?

Significant growth occurred during the two years of schooling across all measured skills, while growth was not observed during the intervening summer.

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by Stanley