Researching Forms of Shadow Education - Methodological Challenges and Complexities of Private Supplementary Tutoring in Myanmar

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by hdkawk

Private supplementary tutoring, commonly termed shadow education, has expanded into a multi-dimensional field, yet many studies fail to represent the full variety of tutoring forms and their implications. This paper investigates shadow education in Myanmar using a mixed-methods design in Mandalay Region and Chin State. Data from interviews with Grade 11 students, teachers, parents, tutoring providers, and private school owners show how instructional styles, supervision roles, fee structures, tutor subject load, and locations complicate clear categorization.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

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Reading Time55 min

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Abstract

Introduction

Objectives and design of shadow education research

Methodological challenges and complexities

Researching Forms of Shadow Education: Methodological Challenges and Complexities of Private Supplementary Tutoring in Myanmar Peter Kamtungtuang Suante The University of Hong Kong Mark Bray East China Normal University & The University of Hong Kong ECNU Review of Education 2024, Vol. 7(1) 89–110 © The Author(s) 2023 Article reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/20965311231167194](DOI: 10.1177/20965311231167194)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/20965311231167194)[journals.sagepub.com/home/roe](journals.sagepub.com/home/roe) Abstract Purpose: The growing literature on private supplementary tutoring, widely known as shadow education, addresses multiple dimensions and roles. However, many studies inadequately capture the diversity and implications of different forms of tutoring. This paper examines these matters in Myanmar, highlighting complexities and ambiguities in descriptors and in the nature of provision. Design/Approach/Methods: Using a mixed-methods design, this study was conducted in Mandalay Region and Chin State. The data were obtained from interviews with 110 Grade 11 students, 34 highschool teachers, 30 parents, 29 private tutoring providers, and two private school owners. Findings: The article categorizes tutoring forms based on their styles and orientations, particularly lecture-type teaching and homework supervision by guides, class sizes, durations of fee-charging (e.g., annually), the number of subjects taught per tutor, and tutoring locations. The study brings the topic out of the shadows for clearer analysis of the phenomenon and thus for assessment of its implications. Corresponding author: Peter Kamtungtuang Suante, Comparative Education Research Centre, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China. Email: [suantepeter@gmail.com](suantepeter@gmail.com) Creative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License ([https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as speciﬁed on the SAGE and Open Access page ([https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage](https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage)). Originality/Value: The study makes a methodological contribution to the wider picture by demonstrating the need for greater clarity and precision in the national and international comparative literatures. It also underscores shortcomings of predetermined categories in questionnaires and the value of qualitative interviews. Keywords Classiﬁcation, methodology, Myanmar, private tutoring, shadow education Date received: 20 November 2022; revised: 14 January 2023; accepted: 24 January 2023 Introduction A substantial literature has developed on private supplementary tutoring, including in this journal (e.g., Christensen & Zhang, 2021; Liao & Huang, 2018) . The phenomenon is widely called“shadow education” because much of its content mimics that in schooling—as the content changes in the schools, so it changes in the shadows (Entrich, 2021; Zhang & Bray, 2020) . The metaphor has ambiguities (Bray et al., 2015a; Malik, 2017), but also has appeal and pertinence both in the mimicry and insofar as shadows are usually indistinct. The shadow education literature mainly focuses on tutoring in academic subjects that are also taught in schools, but for which instruction is delivered outside school hours and in exchange for a fee (e.g., Bray, 1999; Zhang, 2021) . Suppliers of tutoring include teachers desiring extra incomes, university students and other informal providers, and entrepreneurs operating commercial enterprises (Bray, 2022; Duong & Silova, 2021) . Tutoring has many forms

FAQs

What is the purpose of the study on shadow education in Myanmar?

The study aims to show, from a conceptual and methodological standpoint, that the diversities and complexities of shadow education require clearer recognition than is often done in international literature.

How was the research conducted and what sources of data were used?

A mixed-methods design was used, with fieldwork in Mandalay Region and Chin State. The study relied on interviews with Grade 11 students, high school teachers, parents, private tutoring providers, and private school owners.

How does the article categorize forms of private supplementary tutoring?

Tutoring forms are categorized by teaching styles and orientations, including lecture-type instruction and homework supervision by guides, as well as class sizes, fee-charging durations (e.g., annually), number of subjects taught by each tutor, and tutoring locations.

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by hdkawk