Linguistic and Literacy Predictors of Early Spelling in First and Second Language Learners

Oct 15, 2026

Error analyses using a multidimensional measure were conducted on misspellings of Kindergarten children learning English as a first language (EL1) and as a second language (ESL) to identify group differences in early spelling ability. Oral vocabulary, syntactic knowledge, phonological processing, letter/word reading, and alphabet writing fluency were assessed. EL1 and ESL showed similar spelling sophistication despite lower oral vocabulary and syntactic knowledge for ESL. More sophisticated spelling related to stronger phonological processing, syntactic knowledge, and early word reading regardless of language status.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages20

Reading Time50 min

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Abstract

Introduction

Comparisons Between ESL and EL1 Children’s Spelling Development

Linguistic and Literacy Predictors of Early Spelling in First and Second Language Learners Megan Keilty University of Victoria Gina L. Harrison University of Victoria Abstract Error analyses using a multidimensional measure were conducted on the misspellings of Kindergarten children speaking English as a first (EL1) and English as a second language (ESL) in order to detect any differences in early spelling ability between language groups. Oral vocabulary, syntactic knowledge, phonological processing, letter/word reading, and alphabet writing fluency tasks were also administered. The speakers of EL1 and ESL achieved similar spelling sophistication scores despite lower oral vocabulary and syntactic knowledge for the ESL group. More sophisticated spelling approaches were related to better-developed phonological processing, syntactic knowledge, and early word reading irrespective of language status. Résumé Afin de détecter des compétences orthographiques précoces différentes, une analyse multidimensionnelle des erreurs d’orthographe s’est effectuée chez des élèves en maternelle dont l’anglais est la langue natale (AL1) et ceux dont l’anglais est une langue seconde (AL2) . On a également testé le vocabulaire à l’oral, l’alphabet à l’écrit, les connaissances syntaxiques, la procédure phonologique et la lecture des lettres et des mots. Malgré un vocabulaire à l’oral plus restreint et moins de connaissances syntaxiques chez les élèves AL2, les deux groupes atteignaient des scores de sophistication orthographique pareils. Indépendamment de la langue maternelle, les démarches orthographiques plus sophistiquées correspondaient à une procédure phonologique plus avancée, aux connaissances syntaxiques et à la lecture précoce des mots. The Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics: 18, 1 (2015): 87-106 CJAL * RCLA Keilty & Harrison 88 Linguistic and Literacy Predictors of Early Spelling in First and Second Language Learners Introduction Considerable evidence to date indicates that children learning English as a second language (ESL) follow a similar developmental trajectory as native English-speaking (EL1) children in learning to read (decoding and word recognition) in English. Facility with English phonology is the strongest predictor of word level reading skills irrespective of oral vocabulary and syntactic knowledge and individual differences in phonological processing predict reading disabilities regardless of language status (see August & Shanahan, 2006, fora comprehensive research synthesis). Although spelling has not been studied as extensively as reading, the evidence to date suggests that the cognitive-linguistic components important to spelling for ESL children are similar to EL1 children, especially in relation to the importance of phonological processing for early spelling. Learning to spell, as in learning to read, requires gradual mastery in mapping a word’s phoneme to associated graphemes (Adams, 1990; Ehri, 1987; Moats, 1995; Treiman, 1993) via well-developed phonological knowledge and a rich store of orthographic representations in the mental lexicon (Ehri, 1997). The opacity of English orthography requires the amalgamation of phonological and orthographic components to spell words, specifically words that vary in their soundspelling correspondence (e.g., yacht) and young children also become increasingly more sophisticated in their use of phonological and orthographic approaches when spelling (Ehri, 1987; Treiman, 1993). Early influential work on children’s spelling development highlighted the qualitative changes that occur through maturation and formal literacy instruction signifying pivotal shifts in children’s understanding about the relationship between spoken and written language (Read, 1980; Tangel & Blachman, 1992; Treiman, 1993) . Not only do children become more accurate spellers over time and in response to instruction, but their facility in representing increasingly more sophisticated co

FAQs

What was the main method used to study early spelling development?

The study used error analyses with a multidimensional measure based on misspellings from Kindergarten EL1 and ESL children, alongside tasks assessing related literacy and language skills.

Did EL1 and ESL children differ in spelling sophistication?

EL1 and ESL children achieved similar spelling sophistication scores, even though the ESL group had lower oral vocabulary and syntactic knowledge.

Which factors were linked to more sophisticated spelling approaches?

More sophisticated spelling approaches were associated with better-developed phonological processing, syntactic knowledge, and early word reading, independent of language status.

Oct 15, 2026

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