Haunted by ghosts: Prevalence, predictors and outcomes of spirit possession experiences among former child soldiers and war-affected civilians in Northern Uganda

Aug 26, 2026

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Spirit possession is discussed as a potential form of psychopathology, yet population-level quantitative evidence remains limited. In epidemiological research conducted in 2007–2008 with 1,113 youths and young adults (12–25) in Northern Uganda, the study examined prevalence, predictors, and outcomes of cen experiences. Interviews assessed psychopathology (PTSD, depression) and functional outcomes including suicide risk, daily activities, discrimination, physical complaints, and aggression.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages7

Reading Time18 min

AccessFree to download

Introduction

Spirit possession and cultural interpretations

Diagnostic frameworks (DSM and ICD)

Evidence gaps and study rationale

Erschienen in: Social Science & Medicine ; 75 (2012), 3. -S. 548-554 [https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.03.028](https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.03.028) Haunted by ghosts: Prevalence, predictors and outcomes of spirit possession experiences among former child soldiers and war-affected civilians in Northern Uganda Frank Neuner a, *, Anett Pfeiffer b, Elisabeth Schauer-Kaiser b, Michael Odenwald c, Thomas Elbert c, Verena Ertl a a Bielefeld University, Department of Psychology, Postbox 100131, 33501 Bielefeld, Germany b Vivo Uganda, Gulu, Uganda c University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany Keywords: Uganda Spirit possession Child soldiers War Children Mental health a b s t r a c t Phenomena of spirit possession have been documented in many cultures. Some authors have argued that spirit possession is a type of psychopathology, and should be included as a category in diagnostic manuals of mental disorders. However, there are hardly any quantitative studies that report the prevalence of spirit possession on a population level and that provide evidence for its validity as a psycho pathological entity. In an epidemiological study that was carried out in 2007 and 2008 with N ¼ 1113 youths and young adults aged between 12 and 25 years in war affected regions of Northern Uganda we examined the prevalence, predictors and outcomes of cen, a local variant of spirit possession. Randomly selected participants were interviewed using a scale of cen, measures of psychopathology (PTSD and depression) as well as indicators of functional outcome on different levels, including suicide risk, daily activities, perceived discrimination, physical complaints and aggression. We found that cen was more common among former child soldiers then among subjects without a history of abduction. Cen was related to extreme levels of traumatic events and uniquely predicted functional outcome even when the effects of PTSD and depression were controlled for. Our ﬁndings show that a long lasting war that is accompanied by the proliferation of spiritual and magical beliefs and propaganda can lead to high levels of harmful spirit possession. In addition, we provide evidence for the incremental validity of spirit possession as a trauma related psychological disorder in this context. Introduction Spirit possession refers to altered states of consciousness that involve experiences of being under the control of a powerful entity, such as a god, a demon, a devil or a ghost. A common feature of possession states is that the person feels and acts like his identity has been replaced by the spirit (Boddy, 1994). While episodes of spirit possession may occur strange and exotic to observers from western cultures variants of such states have been documented in many resource poor as well as industrialized countries (Boddy, 1994 ; Bourguignon, 1973). In some cultures spirit possession is considered as a normal and sometimes even desirable condition (Boddy, 1992, 1994; Lewis * Corresponding author. Tel.: þ49 521 1064493. E-mail address: [frank.neuner@uni-bielefeld.de](frank.neuner@uni-bielefeld.de) (F. Neuner). Fernandes, 1992; Somasundaram, Thivakaran, & Bhugra, 2008). However, other variants of possession experiences have been interpreted as abnormal phenomena that are associated with suffering and dysfunction and may require some form of treatment (Castillo, 1994a; Gaw, Ding, Levine, & Gaw, 1998; Kua, Chew, & Ko, 1993). Commonly, clinical researchers have interpreted such forms of spirit possession as psychopathology that is shaped by cultural norms and traditions (Cardeña, 1992; Somer, 2006). Since spirit possession resembles dissociative states that can be found in industrialized countries (Cardeña, 1992), forms of spirit possession that are considered to be pathological have been interpreted as cultural variants of dissociative disorders. Thus, the current version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM IV; American Psych

FAQs

What is the focus of the study on spirit possession in Northern Uganda?

The study examines how common spirit possession experiences are, what predicts them, and what outcomes they are associated with among former child soldiers and war-affected civilians.

Which group showed higher prevalence of the local variant cen?

Cen was more common among former child soldiers than among individuals without a history of abduction.

How did the researchers evaluate mental health and functional outcomes?

Participants were interviewed using measures of psychopathology (PTSD and depression) and indicators of functional outcomes such as suicide risk, daily activities, perceived discrimination, physical complaints, and aggression.

Aug 26, 2026

Uploaded by Eden