Gender, Masculinity, and the Perception of Vegetarians and Vegans: A Mixed-Methods Investigation

Aug 21, 2026

Research examines how gender roles shape food and eating habits, since in many societies meat consumption is tied to masculinity and smaller, healthier portions are treated as feminine. Two gender-focused studies investigated vegans and vegetarians (veg*ns). A quantitative study (N=1048) tested links between diet, gender stereotypes, and relationship quality. A qualitative study used six focus groups (N=36) to analyze stereotype experiences and connections to gender roles. Findings indicate vegan men are not perceived as masculine, while veg*ns report diminished-masculinity stereotypes affecting both social perception and lived experiences.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages15

Reading Time38 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

Background: Gender, Food, and Eating Behavior

Meat and Masculinity

Hegemonic Masculinity and Food Choices

Research Questions and Methods

Quantitative Study

Qualitative Focus Groups

Results and Implications

Sex Roles (2023) 89:595–609 [https://doi.org/10.1007/s1](https://doi.org/10.1007/s1) 1199-023-01420-7 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Gender, Masculinity, and the Perception of Vegetarians and Vegans: A Mixed-Methods Investigation Dominika Adamczyk1 · Klaudia Modlińska2 · Dominika Maison1 · Wojciech Pisula2 Accepted: 14 August 2023 / Published online: 30 August 2023 © The Author(s) 2023 Abstract Research shows that women and men have different attitudes toward food and eating habits, which may stem from societal gender roles. In most societies, eating meat is associated with masculinity, and choosing healthy and smaller meals is perceived as feminine. These stereotypes may affect eating behaviors, which may have an impact on health and well-being as well as on the environment and economy. We conducted two studies that focused on the perceptions and experiences of vegans and vegetarians (veg*ns) using a gender lens. The first study (N= 1048) used a quantitative design to investigate the association of a vegan/ vegetarian diet with gender stereotypes and the quality of personal relationships. The second study used a qualitative design with six 6-person focus groups (N= 36) to examine the experience of vegetarians with stereotypes associated with their diet and the possible links to gender roles. Results suggest that men following a vegan diet are not perceived as masculine, and vegans/ vegetarians themselves experience gender stereotypes related to diminished masculinity. Our research confirms that the interplay of diet, the role of meat in society, and gender stereotypes have consequences both for the social perception of people who follow a vegan/ vegetarian diet and for the experiences of the vegan/ vegetarian community. Keywords Vegetarianism · Veganism · Gender stereotypes · Gender roles · Masculinity · Eating habits · Quantitative · Qualitative There has been a longstanding interest in the connection between gender and health, and consequently, gender, food, and eating behavior (Beardsworth et al., 2002) . Since eating is a social activity (Delormier et al., 2009), when we make decisions about what (not) to eat, we act in a social context. Research confirms that women and men have vastly different approaches to eating. First, women value healthy meals more, and are more likely to follow expert dietary advice (Fagerli & Wandel, 1999; Rappoport et al., 1993). However, women report experiencing a range of negative experiences related to food and their body image (Cline, 1990) . Apart from specific eating behaviors rooted in gender roles, a perception of an individual in the eyes of others also depends 􀀍 DominikaAdamczyk [dominika.adamczyk@psych.uw.edu.pl](dominika.adamczyk@psych.uw.edu.pl) 1 Faculty of Psychology, University of Warsaw, Stawki 5/7, Warsaw 00-183, Poland 2 Institute of Psychology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Jaracza 1, Warsaw 00-378, Poland on what he or she eats, which can reveal further gender differences (Bock & Kanarek, 1995) . Scholarship in this area has presented a picture of women caring about their health, paying attention to what they eat, and being perceived as more feminine when they choose smaller meals, and people in general who eat ‘healthy’ foods and smaller portions are perceived as more feminine (Vartanian et al., 2007) . In contrast, people who eat ‘unhealthy’ foods or larger meals are perceived as more masculine (Bock & Kanarek, 1995; Vartanian et al., 2007) . In most societies, eating meat is an additional component of being perceived as more masculine and manly (Adams, 2010; Rozin et al., 2012) . Meat, Masculinity, and Gender Of all foods, meat has the strongest association with masculinity and identity. This association seems to be independent of cultural setting and has been described in many contexts (Cavazza et al., 2015; Mooney & Lorenz, 1997; Rothgerber, 2013). Anthropological works point out that this connection is because meat was primarily reserved for social el

FAQs

Why do gender stereotypes matter for eating behaviors in this research?

Eating meat is culturally associated with masculinity and smaller healthy meals with femininity, so stereotypes can shape both choices and how people are judged, with downstream effects for health, well-being, and broader social outcomes.

What research designs were used to study vegans and vegetarians?

The study combined a quantitative design (N=1048) examining associations between diet, gender stereotypes, and relationship quality with a qualitative design using six focus groups of six participants each (N=36) to explore lived experiences with stereotypes.

What main results emerged regarding masculinity perceptions?

Men following a vegan diet are not perceived as masculine, yet vegans and vegetarians themselves report experiencing gender stereotypes linked to diminished masculinity.

Aug 21, 2026

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