EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN - Examining the Effects of Teacher-Directed Opportunities to Respond on Student Outcomes - A Systematic Review of the Literature

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by dhado

Research examines how teacher-directed opportunities to respond (TD-OTR) affect student outcomes. Earlier studies emphasized student groups with emotional and behavioral disorders or treated TD-OTR as one component of broader classroom-management practices. This review isolates class-wide TD-OTR by screening 527 abstracts and coding 15 empirical studies, then synthesizes effects on behavioral and academic outcomes, including differences by delivery modality, and reports observed and desired TD-OTR rates.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages30

Reading Time1 h 16 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

Purpose and scope of the systematic review

Method: screening and coding of studies

Findings: behavioral and academic outcomes by modality

Outcomes: observed and desired TD-OTR delivery rates

Background: definition of OTR and TD-OTR categories

EDUCATION AND TREATMENT OF CHILDREN Vol. 38, No. 2, 2015 Examining the Effects of Teacher-Directed Opportunities to Respond on Student Outcomes: A Systematic Review of the Literature Ashley S. MacSuga-Gage University of Florida Brandi Simonsen University of Connecticut1 Abstract Research indicates that increasing teacher-directed opportunities to respond (TD-OTR) positively impacts student outcomes. Prior reviews of the empirical literature focused on outcomes for students with emotional behavioral disorders or on TD-OTRs as one of many classroom-management practices; however, prior reviews did not examine effects of TD-OTRs solely within the class-wide context. For the present review, we (a) examined class-wide TD-OTR research (i.e., screened a total of 527 unique abstracts and identified, reviewed, and coded 15 empirical studies); (b) summarized the effects of class-wide TD-OTRs on student behavioral and academic outcomes, including differential impacts by modality; and (c) described the rates of TD-OTRs documented in the literature. Results are consistent with prior reviews, supporting positive behavioral and academic student outcomes when class-wide TD-OTRs are increased, and extend the literature by identifying differential outcomes by modality and describing observed and desired rates of TD-OTR delivery. Keywords: opportunity to respond (OTR), teacher-directed opportunities to respond (TD-OTR), review of literature, student academic achievement, student behavior As the field of education continues to embrace inclusive learning environments, the need to support every student with a core Address correspondence to Ashley S. MacSuga-Gage, University of Florida College of Education School of Special Education, School Psychology, and Early Childhood Studies, 1403 Norman Hall, PO Box 117050 Gainesville, FL 32611-70501; email: asmg@coe. [ufl.edu](ufl.edu) 1. The development of this article was supported in part by Grant H029D40055 from the Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education for OSEP Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports ([www.pbis.org](www.pbis.org)). Opinions expressed herein are the author’s and do not necessarily reflect the position of the U.S. Department of Education, and such endorsements should not be inferred. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Brandi Simonsen at brandi. [simonsen@uconn.edu](simonsen@uconn.edu). 212 MACSUGA-GAGE and SIMONSEN foundation of empirically supported academic and behavior support practices is acute (Conroy, Sutherland, Snyder, & Marsh, 2008; Lewis, Hudson, Richter, & Johnson, 2004; MacSuga-Gage, Simonsen, & Briere, 2012; Simonsen et al., 2010) . To accomplish this goal, research supports setting up classroom environments that promote positive academic and behavioral outcomes through the application of class-wide instructional and behavior support strategies (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers,& Sugai, 2008). Within the context of empirically supported classroom management practices there are several categories of practices that improve the active engagement of all students (Simonsen et al., 2008) . One key effective instructional practice with growing empirical support is providing all students with frequent and varied opportunities to respond (OTR; Lewis et al., 2004; Sutherland & Wehby, 2001) . Opportunities to respond are defined as behaviors (i.e., antecedent stimuli) that occasion student responses, followed by feedback (i.e., the consequence of engaging in the response behavior; Ferkis, Belfiore, & Skinner, 1997) . There are multiple ways that OTR can be delivered to students, including by the teacher during direct instruction, by peers (e.g., class-wide peer tutoring, cooperative learning groups), or via a mediated interface (e.g., a computer game; Haydon, MacSuga-Gage, Simonsen, & Hawkins, 2012) . Increasingly research has focused on ways to provide teachers with effective

FAQs

What does the review examine about teacher-directed opportunities to respond (TD-OTR)?

The review examines how class-wide TD-OTRs influence students’ behavioral and academic outcomes, including differences by modality.

How was the systematic review conducted?

The authors screened 527 unique abstracts and identified, reviewed, and coded 15 empirical studies for synthesis.

How are opportunities to respond (OTR) and TD-OTR defined in the study?

OTR are behaviors that prompt student responses followed by feedback, while TD-OTR are teacher behaviors that present antecedent stimuli, allow student responses, and provide contingent feedback.

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by dhado