Demographic and Transition Service Predictors of Employment Outcomes for Youth Receiving Supplemental Security Income - Article 2021 Vol. 44(2)

Oct 15, 2026

Racially and ethnically diverse youth with disabilities receiving Supplemental Security Income (SSI) were randomly assigned to usual services, including available school and vocational rehabilitation (VR) transition services, or to enhanced case management and transition services via the Wisconsin PROMISE federal demonstration grant. Hierarchical logistic regression showed that increased age, being African American, having a psychiatric disability, and receiving transition services predicted higher youth employment rates. Enhanced PROMISE transition services lost significance once VR services were included, indicating mediation through greater VR engagement. Limitations and implications address relationships between school and state VR transition services and postsecondary competitive integrated employment outcomes.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages13

Reading Time33 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

Study design and comparison groups

Predictors of employment outcomes

Mediation through VR engagement

Implications for transition services

Demographic and Transition Service Predictors of Employment Outcomes for Youth Receiving Supplemental Security Income Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals 2021, Vol. 44(2) 97–109 © Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2021 Article reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/2165143420984797](DOI: 10.1177/2165143420984797)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/2165143420984797)[cdtei.sagepub.com](cdtei.sagepub.com) Ellie C. Hartman, PhD 1, Weneaka Jones, PhD2, Rachel Friefeld Kesselmayer, MS3, Emily A. Brinck, PhD4, Audrey A. Trainor, PhD5, Alicia Reinhard, MS6, Rita K. Fuller, MBA6, Amanda Schlegelmilch, MS7, and Catherine A. Anderson, PhD7 Abstract Racially and ethnically diverse youth with disabilities receiving Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits were randomly assigned to usual services, including available school and vocational rehabilitation (VR) transition services, or enhanced case management and transition services through the Wisconsin Promoting Readiness of Minors in SSI (PROMISE) federal demonstration grant. A hierarchical logistic regression analysis demonstrated increased age, being African American, having a psychiatric disability, and transition services predicted higher youth employment rates. However, enhanced PROMISE transition services were no longer significant in the presence of VR services, suggesting the effect of enhanced services was mediated by increasing engagement in VR. Limitations and implications are discussed regarding the relationship between school and state VR transition services and postsecondary competitive integrated employment outcomes. Keywords high school, state or federal systems, career development/employment, diversity and cultural issues, postschool outcomes Postsecondary transition planning, services, and advocacy help students with disabilities in reaching their education, employment, and independent living goals. Despite efforts, high rates of underemployment persist. Diminished employment is linked to other postsecondary challenges, including social isolation and poverty (Fogg et al., 2010; Smedema et al., 2018) . In 2018, the employment-population ratio was 19% among persons with disabilities compared to 66% of persons without disabilities (Bureau of Labor Statistics [BLS], 2020). A similar discrepancy extends to transition-age youth with disabilities. Among youth with disabilities age 16 to 19 years, employment rates are 17% compared to 31% of their counterparts; among those age 20 to 24 years, 38% are employed compared to 67% without disabilities (BLS, 2020) . Multiple factors correlate with employment rates of transition-age youth with disabilities, including race, ethnicity, disability, age, gender, and transition services. Considerable evidence suggests that the sources of poor employment and postschool outcomes are compounded for individuals who are culturally, racially, ethnically, and linguistically diverse. African American and Hispanic youth with disabilities are among the most vulnerable (Banks, 2014; Booth et al., 2016; Greene, 2014; Thoma et al., 2015) . In contrast, White students with disabilities are more likely to earn more than the federal minimum wage (Wagner et al., 2006) and more likely to work in community employment (Rooshey & Balcazar, 2009) . With extensive histories of discrimination against youth of color and individuals with disabilities, African American and Hispanic youth with disabilities remain vulnerable to multiple types of biases and structural barriers. Increasing opportunity and improving outcomes require identifying supports that mitigate oppres sion and enhance outcomes (Gatlin & Wilson, 2016) . Symptoms associated with disability can influence engagement in employment services, postsecondary education, and 1 Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, Madison, WI, USA 2Marquette University, Milwaukee,

FAQs

How were participating youth assigned to study groups?

Youth receiving SSI benefits were randomly assigned to usual services or to enhanced case management and transition services through the Wisconsin PROMISE demonstration grant.

Which factors predicted higher employment rates in the analysis?

Higher youth employment rates were predicted by increased age, being African American, having a psychiatric disability, and receiving transition services.

Why did enhanced PROMISE transition services stop being significant?

Enhanced PROMISE transition services were no longer significant once VR services were included, suggesting their effect was mediated by increased engagement in VR.

Oct 15, 2026

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