Comparison Between Ultrasound and High-Pressure Homogenization for Encapsulation of β-Carotene in CNF-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions

Sep 30, 2026

Uploaded by Mimi

This study examines stabilization mechanisms and β-carotene encapsulation behavior of cellulose nanofibril (CNF)-stabilized Pickering emulsions prepared by different emulsification processes. Over 48 days, ultrasound-prepared emulsions (US-PE) show clear cream stabilization with at least 2.0 wt.% CNFs, whereas high-pressure homogenization emulsions (HPH-PE) exhibit excellent cream stabilization with more than 1.6 wt.% CNFs. HPH-PE outperforms US-PE mainly due to steric stabilization from CNF space networks. While β-carotene encapsulation efficiency is higher in US-PE at CNF concentrations above 1.2 wt.%, retention is lower than in HPH-PE, indicating the HPH internal structure better supports emulsion stability and bioactive protection.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryHealthcare

FormatPDF

Pages14

Reading Time35 min

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Abstract

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Materials

Article Comparison Between Ultrasound and High-Pressure Homogenization for Encapsulation of β-Carotene in CNF-Stabilized Pickering Emulsions Adila Abdirym, Xue Wu * and Bin Liu * Academic Editor: Luis Alfonso Trujillo-Cayado Received: 7 November 2025 Revised: 28 November 2025 Accepted: 17 December 2025 Published: 31 December 2025 Copyright: © 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license. School of Computer and Artificial Intelligence, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China; [18167413740@163.com](18167413740@163.com) * [Correspondence: wuxue@th.btbu.edu.cn](Correspondence: wuxue@th.btbu.edu.cn) (X.W.); [liubin@th.btbu.edu.cn](liubin@th.btbu.edu.cn) (B.L.) Abstract This work investigated the stabilization mechanisms and β-carotene encapsulation characteristics of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) stabilized Pickering emulsions (PE) prepared by different emulsification processes. For 48 days of storage, ultrasound-prepared Pickering emulsions (US-PE) stabilized by at least 2.0 wt.% CNFs have obvious cream stabilization, and high-pressure homogenization-prepared Pickering emulsions (HPH-PE) stabilized by over 1.6 wt.% CNFs have excellent cream stabilization. The stabilization of HPH-PE, which was superior to that of US-PE, mainly relied on the steric stabilization of CNFs’space networks. Although the encapsulation efficiency of β-carotene in US-PE was higher than that in HPH-PE when the CNF concentration was over 1.2 wt.%, the retention rate of β-carotene in US-PE was obviously lower than that in HPH-PE. So, the internal space structure of CNF-stabilized HPH-PE was conducive to stabilizing the emulsion and protecting the bioactive molecule. Keywords: β-carotene; Pickering emulsion; high-pressure homogenization (HPH); ultrasounds (US); encapsulation 1. Introduction Emulsions stabilized by colloid particles, which are regarded as Pickering emulsions (PE), have recently appealed to researchers [1] . Because of the advantages in controlled release and delivery, high stability against coalescence, and bioavailability of lipophilic substances [2–5], Pickering emulsions have seen extensive use in commercially adapted food matrices and carrier systems for bioactive compound entrapment, preservation, and controlled liberation [3,6,7] . As a carotenoid, β-carotene serves as a potent provitamin A precursor [8] . However, given that the human body is unable to synthesize β-carotene, humans can only receive β-carotene from food or health products [9] . The key challenges in utilizing β-carotene as a versatile food constituent are its suboptimal solubility in water, limited stability, and low bioavailability [10] . Therefore, to address the challenges, encapsulation strategies leveraging lipid-based systems have been engineered, restricting β-carotene in the hydrophobic groups of Pickering emulsions. There are reports revealing that β-carotene was sealed efficiently in Pickering emulsions, which were stabilized by aggregated spherical particles such as the wheat gluten nanoparticle (WGN) [11], non-spherical polydisperse particles such as chitosan-phytic acidcyclodextrin (CS-PA-CD) nanoparticles [12], complex nanoparticles such as zein-propylene glycol alginate-tea saponin (zein-PGA-TS) [13] . Moreover, the chemical degradation rate of β-carotene was reduced in Pickering emulsions, while its bioavailability and nutritional delivery stability were improved [14,15] . Different from spherical or coil-like composite nanoparticles used as emulsion stabilizer, rod-like nanoparticles, cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) have a higher aspect ratio and can form a network with a three-dimensional structure or further anchoring matrixes, directing the distribution of oil droplets [16–18] . Furthermore, CNFs possess biocompatibility, low toxicity, renewability, and b

FAQs

How do US-PE and HPH-PE differ in cream stabilization over storage?

US-PE shows obvious cream stabilization when stabilized by at least 2.0 wt.% CNFs, while HPH-PE achieves excellent cream stabilization when CNFs exceed 1.6 wt.%. Both are evaluated over 48 days of storage.

Why does HPH-PE provide better stabilization than US-PE?

The paper attributes the superior stabilization of HPH-PE to steric stabilization arising from the CNF space network structure.

Which preparation method retains β-carotene better, and under what condition does encapsulation efficiency differ?

Encapsulation efficiency is higher in US-PE than in HPH-PE when CNF concentration is over 1.2 wt.%, but β-carotene retention is lower in US-PE. HPH-PE shows a higher retention rate, consistent with better protection by its internal space structure.

Sep 30, 2026

Uploaded by Mimi