Comparing the effectiveness of Duolingo, Classroom instruction, and Classroom + Duolingo instruction conditions on beginner-level French language development

Sep 29, 2026

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Over the past decade, mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) applications such as Duolingo have become increasingly common. This study evaluates French language development in beginners across three conditions: Classroom-Only (n = 58), Duolingo-Only (n = 65), and Classroom + Duolingo (n = 60). Participants completed pretests and posttests over 16 weeks measuring overall proficiency, grammar, vocabulary, pragmatics (tu vs. vous), and communicative competence. Linear mixed-effects models show significant improvement for all groups across nearly all measures, with the Classroom + Duolingo group gaining more on tu vs. vous.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages28

Reading Time1 h 11 min

AccessFree to download

Abstract

Introduction

Language development using mobile apps

Studies in Second Language Acquisition (2026), 48, 680–707 doi:10.1017/S0272263126101521 RESEARCH ARTICLE Comparing the effectiveness of Duolingo, Classroom instruction, and Classroom + Duolingo instruction conditions on beginner-level French language development YouJin Kim1 , Caroline Payant2 , Stephen Skalicky3 and Yoon Namkung1 1Applied Linguistics & ESL, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, USA; 2Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Canada and 3Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand Corresponding author: YouJin Kim; [Email:](Email: ykim39@gsu.edu)[ ykim39@gsu.edu](Email: ykim39@gsu.edu) (Received 28 November 2024; Revised 10 November 2025; Accepted 02 December 2025) Abstract Over the past decade, there has been growing use of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) applications such as Duolingo. The effectiveness of MALL applications is thus of great interest among language acquisition researchers and practitioners. This study compared French language development among beginners in three learning conditions: Classroom-Only (n = 58), Duolingo-Only (n = 65), and Classroom + Duolingo (n = 60). The Classroom-Only group completed a standard first-semester curriculum, the Classroom + Duolingo group used Duolingo as supplemental material, and the Duolingo-Only group learned exclusively through the app. All participants completed pretests and posttests measuring overall proficiency, grammar, vocabulary, pragmatics(tuvs. vous), and communicative competence over a16-week period. Linear mixed-effects models revealed that all three groups showed significant improvement across nearly all measures between pretest and posttest, with similar magnitudes of improvement. The only exception was in learning tu vs. vous (pragmatic competence), where the Classroom + Duolingo group showed larger gains than Classroom-Only and DuolingoOnly groups. Results suggest that both traditional classroom instruction and Duolingo are comparably effective for beginning French language learners. Results are discussed in light of mobile app-based language learning with the potential role of learner characteristics. Keywords: Beginner L2French learners;Classroom instruction; Duolingo; Mobile-assisted language learning Introduction Research in second language acquisition (SLA) provides evidence that the use of mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) applications such as Duolingo, Busuu, © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Cambridge University Press. This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives licence ([http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by)nc-nd/4.0), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that no alterations are made and the original article is properly cited. The written permission of Cambridge University Press orthe rights holder(s) must be obtained prior to any commercial use and/or adaptation of the article. Downloaded from [https://www.cambridge.org/core](https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP)[. IP](https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP) address: [166.108.237.103](166.108.237.103), on 29 Sep 2026 at 00:40:14, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at [https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms](https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms). [https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263126101521](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263126101521) Comparing the Effectiveness of Duolingo and Classroom Instruction 681 and Babbel is a beneficial method for language learning (Jiang et al., 2020; Rachels & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2018; Vesselinov & Grego, 2012, 2016) . These studies suggest that MALL application use affords an equal or greater amount of language learning opportunities for the development of reading and listening skills when compared to foreign language (FL) instruction in classroom contexts. However, the impact of MALL applications on the development of or

FAQs

What learning conditions were compared for beginner-level French development?

The study compared Classroom-Only, Duolingo-Only, and Classroom + Duolingo conditions among French beginners.

How long did the intervention and testing period last?

All participants completed pretests and posttests across a 16-week period.

Which outcome showed a difference among the three groups?

The tu vs. vous pragmatic measure favored the Classroom + Duolingo group, which showed larger gains than the other two groups.

Sep 29, 2026

Upload by Connor