CHAPTER 6 - Hunter-Hastings languages - Introduction to Chapter 6 - Languages in this group

Oct 5, 2026

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Chapter 6 introduces the “Hunter-Hastings” languages spoken north of the Sydney-Hawkesbury languages, covering an area from Brisbane Water to the Wilson River and from the coast toward the Great Dividing Range. The chapter identifies two languages in the group—Hunter River-Lake Macquarie (HRLM) and Lower North Coast (LNC)—and outlines major internal dialect divisions. It then discusses how scholars have treated these languages as a grouping, comparing external classifications with higher-order relationships and presenting arguments for distinct but closely related linguistic status.

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CHAPTER 6

Introduction to Chapter 6

Languages in this group

Treatment of these languages as a group

External relationships of the Hunter-Hastings languages

Internal relationships of the Hunter-Hastings languages

Rationale for the grouping of language varieties

6.1 Hunter River-Lake Macquarie Language

6.1.1.1 Awabakal

6.1.1.2 Karikal (Kuringgai)

6.1.2.1 Wanarruwa

6.1.2.2 Kayawaykal (Geawegal)

# CHAPTER 6 Hunter-Hastings languages Introduction to Chapter 6 In the previous two chapters we have dealt with the southernmost of the coastal NSW languagegroups:the South-east NSW languages and the the Sydney-Hawkesbury languages.In this chapterwe turn to a group of languages that were spoken to the north of the Sydney-Hawkesbury lan-guages:we call them the"Hunter-Hastings"languages.The Hunter-Hastings languages coveredan area that extended roughly from Brisbane Water in the south to the Wilson River⁹⁸in the north,and from the coast almost to the Great Dividing Range. There are only two languages in this group:the Hunter River-Lake Macquarie language(HRLM)and the Lower North Coast language(LNC),and each had a number of dialects.In the case ofHRLM,the major division was probably between coastal and inland dialects.For LNC,it seemslikely that the distinction between northern and southern dialects was more significant. This group is named after the two major rivers of the region.The Hunter River flows throughthe territory associated with the Hunter River-Lake Macquarie language,and the Hastings Riverflows through the country in which the Lower North Coast language was spoken. # Languages in this group | 6.1 Hunter River-Lake Macquarie Language | 6.1.1.1 Awabakal
6.1.1.2 Karikal(Kuringgai)
6.1.2.1 Wanarruwa
6.1.2.2 Kayawaykal(Geawegal) | | --- | --- | | 6.2 Lower North Coast Language | 6.2.1.1 Gadhang(Taree dialect)
6.2.1.2 Warrimay
6.2.1.3 Guringay(Gringai)
6.2.2 Birrbay | ## Treatment of these languages as a group We begin by considering the relationship of the two Hunter-Hastings languages to their neigh-bours,then their relationship to each other. ## External relationships of the Hunter-Hastings languages We treat this group separately from the Macleay-New England languages(Group 7),the CentralInland NSW languages(Group 8),the Northern Inland NSW languages(Group 9)and the EastQueensland Border languages (Group 13),even though other writers have proposed classificationswhich group some of these languages together. Oates(1975),following Schmidt(1919),includes the Hunter-Hastings languages in the Kuri Subgroup of the Yuin-Kuric Group,along with Dhanggati and its dialects(our Group 7)and also Yugambal(our Group 13).10Dixon (2002)groups together the Hunter-Hastings languages,which he calls the“Awabagal/Gadjang subgroup”(labelled Na*),with the Djan-gadi/Nganyaywanasubgroup(Nb*),which corresponds to our Group 7,the Central Inland NSW subgroup(Nc*)which incorporates the languages of our Group 8(Gamilaraay etc.),and also“Muruwarri”(Nd)and“Barranbinja”(Ne),which are included in our Group 9.101 We have preferred not to make any claims about higher order relationships between the groupswe recognise,since these relationships remain to be demonstrated in detail.We observe,nonetheless,that there seems to be a fair degree of consensus that the Hunter-Hastings languages(the groupwe deal with in this chapter)and the Macleay-New England languages(our Group 7)constitutesome kind of higher order grouping.On the other hand,the relationship of the Hunter-Hastingslanguages to the Central Inland NSW languages(our Group 8)is not so clear.Austin,Williams andWurm note that“grammatically,there are large differences between the two groups of languages.Infact,the mountain range appears to form a linguistic as well as natural boundary"(1980:172). ## Internal relationships of the Hunter-Hastings languages It has been asserted or implied by a number of earlier writers(e.g.Elkin 1932:359;Enright 1933:161;Holmer 1966:1;Tindale 1974:193,201)that the Hunter River-Lake Macquarie language andthe Lower North Coast language are dialects of the same language.The most explicit formulation ofthis view comes from Enright,who believed that "the Awabakal spoke Kattang"(1932a:76). However,in recent years a consensus has developed among linguists who have examinedthe data(e.g.O'Grady,Voegelin &Voegelin 1

FAQs

What geographic area do the Hunter-Hastings languages cover?

They extend roughly from Brisbane Water in the south to the Wilson River in the north, and from the coast toward the Great Dividing Range.

Which two languages make up the Hunter-Hastings group?

The group contains two languages: Hunter River-Lake Macquarie (HRLM) and Lower North Coast (LNC), each with multiple dialects.

How do recent linguists view the relationship between HRLM and LNC?

Recent consensus treats HRLM and LNC as distinct but closely related languages, even though they may have some degree of mutual intelligibility.

Oct 5, 2026

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