AS SIMPLE AS ONE,TWO,THREE - CENSUS UNDERENUMERATION AMONG THE AMERICAN INDIANS AND ALASKA NATIVES - UNDERCOUNT BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH GROUP STAFF WORKING PAPER 2 - May 1990

Oct 16, 2026

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This paper examines allegations and supporting evidence of the U.S. Census Bureau undercounting the American Indian population. It reviews historical census methods and the unique legal and political relationship between Indian tribes and the federal government, including treaty obligations and the trust relationship over land, self-government, and social services. It details constitutional apportionment exclusions based on whether Indians were taxed, subsequent assimilation-related counting practices, and enumeration barriers such as language differences, resistance, high mobility, and limited interviewer training.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages16

Reading Time40 min

AccessFree to download

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Unique legal and political relationship with the U.S. federal government

Treaty obligations, trust relationship, and land/taxation issues

Exclusion from early censuses and constitutional apportionment

Assimilation policies and shifting census categories

Mixed-blood classification and enumeration effects

Census Bureau actions in 1880 and published enumeration in 1890

Barriers affecting census accuracy

# AS SIMPLE AS ONE,TWO,THREE:CENSUS UNDERENUMERATIONAMONG THE AMERICAN INDIANS AND ALASKA NATIVES by Carol Lujan # UNDERCOUNT BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH GROUP STAFF WORKING PAPER\#2May 1990 INTRODUCTION This paper focuses on allegations and evidence of the United States Bureau of the Census(Census Bureau)undercount of the American Indian population. To develop acomprehensive understanding of the census enumeration process as it concerns AmericanIndians it is important to examine previous methods,procedures,and practices of theCensus Bureau regarding the American Indian population.This willbe undertaken by firstpresenting an initial overview of the unique legal and political status and relationship thatIndian tribes have with the federal government.Second,actual documentation ofunderenumeration among various tribes will be presented.Last,reasons for theundercount will be explored. # BACKGROUND INFORMATION American Indians have a unique legal and political relationship with the United Statesgovernment.Their status is that of domestic dependent nations within a nation.No otherethnic minority group in the country has this type of relationship with the federalgovernment.The special status is based on treaty obligations enacted between thefederal government and various tribes.These treaties are legally binding agreements.Policies that result from the treaties were codified by the first Congress in the Indian Tradeand Intercourse Act of 1790 (U.S Commission on Civil Rights,1981).The act prohibitedany land transactions with Indian nations or tribes of Indians without the participation ofthe US government. In the treaty relationship the tribes gave up external sovereignty --the right to go to warwith or make treaties with foreign powers --in return for the protection of the UnitedStates.The trust relationship centers on three components:land,tribal self-government,and social services (US Civil Rights Commission,1981).Most specific to the CensusBureau are the issues of land and taxation.Because Indian land is held in trust by thefederal government it is non-taxable.The decision not to include Indians in the initial census process resulted from their non-taxable status,which is referred to in Article l,Section 2 of the Constitution mandating the census process. Article I Section §2 of the US Constitution states: "Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned amongthe several states which may be included within this Unionaccording to their respective numbers,which shall he determinedby adding to the whole number of free persons,includingthose bound to service for a term of years,and excludingIndians not taxed,three-fifths of all other persons. The exact enumeration shall he made within three years afterthe first meetings of the Congress of the United States,andwithin every subsequent term of ten years,in such manneras they shall by law direct.” As aresult of the above mandate,American Indians were excluded from the first sixcensuses from 1790 through 1850.Indians not paying taxes were not to be counted whendetermining the population of states,based on the presumption that those Indians immunefrom state and federal taxes were in some kind of political allegiance to their own tribesand thus not truly part of the United States(Deloria and Lytle,1984).However,with theadvent of Andrew Jackson's forced assimilation polities of the early 1800's,the CensusBureau began the process of enumerating Indians by counting certain segments of theAmerican Indian population.Beginning in 1860,only those Indians who were consideredassimilated were officially counted and noted as "civilized Indians"in census documents.Identifying civilized Indians was primarily contingent on land ownership.As Clemence(no date:11)states: “The determination was administrative:apparently Indianson reservations who received'allotments'under the GeneralAllotment Act of 1887 were considered citizens.The Bureaudetermined whether a reservation had been allot

FAQs

What is the paper’s primary focus?

The paper focuses on allegations and evidence that the U.S. Census Bureau undercounts the American Indian population, especially as it relates to the enumeration process.

Why were American Indians excluded from the early censuses (1790–1850)?

The paper explains that Indians not paying taxes were excluded when determining state populations, tied to constitutional apportionment language and assumptions about taxable status.

What factors made accurate census counting difficult for American Indians?

The paper identifies barriers including language differences, resistance to federal government activities, high mobility rates, and a lack of sufficiently trained interviewers.

Oct 16, 2026

Uploaded by Logic