AERA Open - The Effects of No Child Left Behind on Children’s Socioemotional Outcomes

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by Stanley

High-stakes testing under the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act is examined for its effects on children’s socioemotional outcomes. Using a difference-in-differences approach with data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey–Kindergarten Cohort of 1998–1999, the study tracks 10 outcomes from children’s SelfDescriptive Questionnaire. Results show no consistent significant effects on socioemotional domains, with only limited point estimates for academic anxiety and math interest/competence. Findings inform concerns about revised accountability systems under ESSA.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages21

Reading Time53 min

AccessFree to download

Introduction

Motivation and policy context (NCLB and ESSA)

Research questions

Effects on socioemotional outcomes overall

Heterogeneous effects by subgroup

Outcomes and measurement

Externalizing behaviors

Internalizing behaviors and academic interest/competence

Findings and implications

AERA Open July-September 2017, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 1–21 DOI: 10. 1177/2332858417726324 © The Author(s) 2017. [http://ero.sagepub.com](http://ero.sagepub.com) The Effects of No Child Left Behind on Children’s Socioemotional Outcomes Camille R. Whitney Independent Education Researcher Christopher A. Candelaria Vanderbilt University Many people have worried about possible adverse effects of high-stakes testing on socioemotional outcomes. This article uses a difference-in-differences approach to investigate the effects of the introduction of high-stakes testing via the No Child Left Behind Act on socioemotional outcomes. Data are from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey–Kindergarten Cohort of 1998–1999, a nationally representative longitudinal survey. The 10 outcomes that we examine are from the children’s SelfDescriptive Questionnaire, including externalizing problems related to paying attention and behavior in school, internalizing problems related to feeling sad and lonely and academic anxiety, as well as interest and competence in math, reading, and school in general. We find that the introduction of high-stakes test accountability did not have consistent significant effects on these socioemotional outcomes. These findings can help states address concerns and motivate further research on potential unintended consequences of revised accountability systems under the Every Student Succeeds Act. Keywords: NCLB, socioemotional outcomes, accountability The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 was the first national law to require consequences for U.S. schools based on students’ standardized test scores. Although the NCLB era officially came to a close in December 2015, the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), NCLB’s replacement, continues to include consequences for schools according to standardized test scores. Unlike NCLB, ESSA allows greater flexibility in implementation and requires states to choose another measure of school quality beyond four required academic indicators. Examining the benefits and costs of consequential accountability systems under NCLB can help inform current state efforts to revise their accountability systems under ESSA. This article examines effects of NCLB on socioemotional outcomes, a topic that has generated much speculation but little research to date. Critics charge that high-stakes accountability systems such as NCLB exact a heavy cost on students’ socioemotional well-being. For example, a greater focus on testing could cause higher levels of anxiety or test anxiety among children (M. G. Jones et al., 1999; Madaus, 1991; Paris, Lawton, Turner, & Roth, 1991; Segool, Carlson, Goforth, Von Der Embse, & Barterian, 2013; Wolf & Smith, 1995) . However, few rigorous large-scale quantitative studies have examined whether high-stakes standardized testing affects socioemotional outcomes. In this article, we aim to address this gap in the literature by measuring the impact of NCLB on a variety of socioemotional outcomes, using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey–Kindergarten Cohort of 1998–1999 (ECLS-K) . We refer to such testing as “consequential accountability,” meaning that failing to meet certain statewide standards has serious consequences for schools, as defined by Hanushek and Raymond (2005) . Using a difference-in-differences quasi-experimental methodology, we address the following research questions: Research Question 1: What effects did the introduction of consequential accountability via NCLB have on children’s socioemotional outcomes? Research Question 2: Are there different effects for different student subgroups as defined by socioeconomic status and gender? The outcomes include student-reported externalizing behaviors (misbehaving at school and failing to pay attention), internalizing behaviors (academic anxiety and feelingsad or lonely), and interest and self-competence in math, reading, and all school subjects in general. For our purposes, we refer to

FAQs

What research design is used to evaluate NCLB’s effects?

The article uses a difference-in-differences quasi-experimental approach to estimate the impact of introducing consequential accountability under NCLB on socioemotional outcomes.

Which data source and time cohort are analyzed?

The analysis uses data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey–Kindergarten Cohort of 1998–1999, a nationally representative longitudinal survey.

Did NCLB high-stakes testing produce consistent socioemotional effects?

No. The introduction of high-stakes test accountability did not have consistent significant effects across the 10 socioemotional outcomes examined.

Oct 15, 2026

Uploaded by Stanley