Addressing the EU Cybersecurity Skills Shortage and Gap Through Higher Education - ENISA Report

Sep 4, 2026

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The report addresses the well-documented EU cybersecurity skills shortage and skills gap and explains why they continue to affect labour markets despite initiatives already launched worldwide. It examines the current supply of cybersecurity skills in Europe using data from the Cybersecurity Higher Education Database (CyberHEAD) and analyzes policy approaches used by EU Member States. Recommendations focus on expanding enrolment in cybersecurity programmes, strengthening training and awareness, aligning government, industry and universities, and understanding job-market needs and trends.

LanguageEnglish

CategoryResearch & Report

FormatPDF

Pages73

Reading Time3 h 4 min

AccessFree to download

Executive Summary

1. Introduction

1.1 Scope of the Report

1.2 Target Audience

1.3 Report Structure

2. The Supply of Cybersecurity Qualifications and Skills

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Analysis of the Characteristics of Cybersecurity Programmes

2.3 Assessment of Enrolments and Graduates and Their Ability to Address Skills Needs

3. Initiatives to Address the Cybersecurity Skills Shortage and Gap in the EU

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Raise User Awareness Amongst the General Public and in Primary and Secondary Education

3.3 Strengthen Training and Promote Cybersecurity in Higher Education

3.4 Organise Cybersecurity Exercises and Challenges

4. Summary and Recommendations

4.1 Increase Enrolment in Cybersecurity Programmes

4.2 Support a Unified Approach Across Government, Industry and Universities

4.3 Understand Job Market Needs and Trends

4.4 Collaborations Between European Member States

4.5 CyberHEAD’s Value for Students, Higher Education Institutions and Member States

A. Annex: CyberHEAD Questions

A.1 Annex Subsection

A.2 List of Questions to Be Answered by the HEIs

B. Annex: Expanding the CyberHEAD Question Set

C. Annex: Member State Replies

D. Annex: Approaches Adopted by Non-EU Countries

E. Annex: List of CyberHEAD Programmes

ADDRESSING THE EU CYBERSECURITY SKILLS SHORTAGE AND GAP THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION NOVEMBER 2021 ABOUT ENISA The European Union Agency for Cybersecurity, ENISA, is the Union’s agency dedicated to achieving a high common level of cybersecurity across Europe. Established in 2004 and strengthened by the EU Cybersecurity Act, the European Union Agency for Cybersecurity contributes to EU cyber policy, enhances the trustworthiness of ICT products, services and processes with cybersecurity certification schemes, cooperates with Member States and EU bodies, and helps Europe prepare for the cyber challenges of tomorrow. Through knowledge sharing, capacity building and awareness raising, the Agency works together with its key stakeholders to strengthen trust in the connected economy, to boost resilience of the Union’s infrastructure and, ultimately, to keep Europe’s society and citizens digitally secure. More information about ENISA and its work can be found here: [www.enisa.europa.eu](www.enisa.europa.eu). CONTACT To contact the authors, please use euskills@enisa.europa.eu. For media enquiries about this paper, please use press@enisa.europa.eu. AUTHORS Jason R.C. Nurse (University of Kent), Konstantinos Adamos (University of Aegean) , Athanasios Grammatopoulos (ENISA) , Fabio Di Franco (ENISA) LEGAL NOTICE This publication represents the views and interpretations of ENISA, unless stated otherwise. It does not endorse a regulatory obligation of ENISA or of ENISA bodies pursuant to the Regulation (EU) No 2019/881 . ENISA has the right to alter, update or remove the publication or any of its contents. It is intended for information purposes only and it must be accessible free of charge. All references to it or its use as a whole or partially must contain ENISA as its source. Third-party sources are quoted as appropriate. ENISA is not responsible or liable for the content of the external sources including external websites referenced in this publication. Neither ENISA nor any person acting on its behalf is responsible for the use that might be made of the information contained in this publication. ENISA maintains its intellectual property rights in relation to this publication. COPYRIGHT NOTICE © European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA), 2021 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. Copyright for the image on the cover: © Shutterstock For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the ENISA copyright, permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders. ISBN 978-92-9204-540-1 DOI: 10.2824/033355 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 4 1. INTRODUCTION 5 1.1 SCOPE OF THE REPORT 6 1.2 TARGET AUDIENCE 7 1.3 REPORT STRUCTURE 7 2. THE SUPPLY OF CYBERSECURITY QUALIFICATIONS AND SKILLS 9 2.1 INTRODUCTION 9 2.2 AN ANALYSIS OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CYBERSECURITY PROGRAMMES 10 2.3 AN ASSESSMENT OF ENROLMENTS AND GRADUATES AND THEIR ABILITY TO ADDRESS THE NEEDS FOR SKILLS 18 3. INITIATIVES TO ADDRESS THE CYBERSECURITY SKILLS SHORTAGE AND GAP IN THE EU 24 3.1 INTRODUCTION 24 3.2 RAISE USER AWARENESS AMONGST THE GENERAL PUBLIC AND IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 3.3 STRENGTHEN TRAINING AND PROMOTE CYBERSECURITY IN HIGHER EDUCATION 28 3.4 ORGANISE CYBERSECURITY EXERCISES AND CHALLENGES 31 4. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 34 4.1 INCREASE ENROLMENT IN CYBERSECURITY PROGRAMMES 35 4.2 SUPPORT A UNIFIED APPROACH ACROSS GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRY AND UNIVERSITIES 36 4.3 UNDERSTAND JOB MARKET NEEDS AND TRENDS 37 4.4 COLLABORATIONS BETWEEN EUROPEAN MEMBER STATES 37 4.5 CYBERHEAD’S VALUE FOR STUDENTS, HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS AND MEMBER STATES 38 A ANNEX: CYBERHEAD QUESTIONS 39 A.1 ANNEX SUBSECTION 39 A.2 LIST OF QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED BY THE HEIS 39 B ANNEX: EXPANDING THE CYBERHEAD QUESTION SET 40 C ANNEX: MEMBER STATE REPLIES 44 D ANNEX: APPROACHES ADOPTED BY NON-EU COUNTRIES 62 D.1 RAISE US

FAQs

What problem does the report focus on?

The report focuses on the cybersecurity skills shortage and skills gap and how they impact national labour markets, including the EU context.

How does the report assess the current supply of cybersecurity skills in Europe?

It provides an overview using data collected and generated by the Cybersecurity Higher Education Database (CyberHEAD) and analyzes characteristics of cybersecurity programmes.

Which policy areas and actions are used to structure the proposed initiatives?

The policy approaches are classified and analyzed around cybersecurity awareness, training, challenges and exercises, with emphasis on the higher education sector.

Sep 4, 2026

Uploaded by Putri