[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-86662-en":3,"doc-seo-86662-105":30,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":92},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":20,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":21,"is_downloadable":21,"audit_status":21,"page_count":22,"language":23,"language_code":24,"site_id":25,"html_lang":24,"table_of_contents":26,"faqs":27,"seo_title":13,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":28,"read_time":29},86662,13056703020460,"Valentina","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/be000253dac470eee5d?_k=1778207105932848923",8,"Research & Report","Vulnerable Decision Points in School Discipline for Teachers of Latino/a/e Students","This study examined discipline inequities for Latino/a/e students using the Vulnerable Decision Point (VDP) approach at a national scale, accounting for differences across school levels and comparing patterns with non-Latino/a/e Black and White students. Findings show most schools lack significant office discipline referral (ODR) disparities for Latino/a/e students, while disparities appear more often in high schools than in elementary or middle schools. In schools with disparities, classrooms were the most common ODR location, and over-referral behaviors varied by level. Results inform team decision-making and responsive, sustaining interventions.","Vulnerable Decision Points in School Discipline for Teachers of Latino/a/e Students  \nSean C. Austin, PhD 1, María Reina Santiago-Rosario, PhD 1, and Kent McIntosh, PhD 1  \nJournal of Positive Behavior Interventions  \n1–15  \n© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2026 Article reuse guidelines:  \n[sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[DOI: 10.1177/10983007261435185](DOI: 10.1177/10983007261435185)[ ](DOI: 10.1177/10983007261435185)[jpbi.sagepub.com](jpbi.sagepub.com)  \nAbstract  \nThis study explored discipline inequities for Latino/a/e students using the Vulnerable Decision Point (VDP) approach on a national scale, considering contextual differences across school levels and comparing patterns of disparities with those of non-Latino/a/e Black and White students. We found that most schools do not have significant office discipline referral (ODR) disparities for Latino/a/e students. In addition, we found that disparities for Latino/a/e students are more common in high schools than in elementary and middle schools. In the schools that had significant disparities for Latino/a/e students, classrooms were the most common location for ODR disparities across settings. However, the behaviors for which teachers over-referred Latino/a/e students differed by school level. School-level disparity patterns are discussed in the context of team decision-making, informing responsive and sustaining interventions, and research considerations.  \nKeywords  \npositive behavior support(s), teams, school-wide intervention(s), system  \nAlthough the use of exclusion as a school discipline practice has decreased in the last decade (U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2021), removing students from instruction due to behavior incidents remains ineffective, with serious adverse repercussions. Evidence shows inequities in exclusion for underserved students, including Black, Indigenous, and other people of color, students with disabilities, students in the foster system and experiencing homelessness, those living in poverty, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) students (e.g., Flores & Losen, 2025; Snapp et al., 2022; U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights, 2021) . Upon reentry after exclusion, these students are more likely to be absent, score lower academically, be less likely to graduate, and face the justice system as adults (Lacoe & Steinberg, 2019; Welch et al., 2022) .  \nIdentifying Variables Associated With Inequities in School Discipline  \nScholars examining inequities in school discipline have explored student behavior (e.g., Welsh & Little, 2018), academic engagement (e.g., Hinojosa, 2008), and cultural behavior patterns as predictors of exclusion (e.g., Okonofua et al., 2016) . Research has also studied classroom and school variables like student enrollment, teachers’ and administrators’ discipline tendencies, and use of positive  \nbehavioral support practices (Skiba et al., 2014) . Although related to exclusion, these factors do not fully explain racial differences. Skiba et al. (2002) found that racial disparities in discipline remained significant across different methodological approaches, including analyses of office discipline referrals (ODRs; reported incidents in which a student is sent to the office by an educator for a perceived behavioral infraction), controls for socioeconomic status, and discriminant analyses of behaviors. This study, among others, show that racial disparities persist even after accounting for socioeconomic status, disability, and factors such as foster care placement or homelessness (Flores & Losen, 2025; Huang & Cornell, 2017; Skiba et al., 2011), and that Black students do not exhibit more frequent or intense behavioral errors (Welsh & Little, 2018) . Owens (2022) found that teachers rated Black and Latino/a/e students as more blameworthy and more likely to be referred to the office than White student","cbCaioa46CXkZA5S","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaioa46CXkZA5S","pdf",1069924,5,1,15,"English","en",105,"# Abstract\n# Identifying Variables Associated With Inequities in School Discipline\n# Vulnerable Decision Points Framework","[{\"question\":\"What does the Vulnerable Decision Point (VDP) framework focus on in school discipline decisions?\",\"answer\":\"It frames discipline outcomes as shaped by educators’ biases and identifies situations where decisions (such as office discipline referrals) are especially susceptible to bias, linking those contexts to disproportionate student outcomes.\"},{\"question\":\"Do schools typically show office discipline referral (ODR) disparities for Latino/a/e students?\",\"answer\":\"Most schools do not show significant ODR disparities for Latino/a/e students, indicating inequities are not uniform across settings.\"},{\"question\":\"How do disparity patterns for Latino/a/e students differ across school levels?\",\"answer\":\"Disparities for Latino/a/e students are more common in high schools than in elementary and middle schools, and when disparities exist, the types of behaviors associated with over-referral vary by level.\"}]",1784239225,38,{"code":4,"msg":31,"data":32},"ok",{"site_id":25,"language":24,"slug":33,"title":13,"keywords":34,"description":14,"schema_data":35,"social_meta":87,"head_meta":89,"extra_data":91,"updated_unix":28},"vulnerable-decision-points-in-school-discipline-for-teachers-of-latinoae-students","",{"@graph":36,"@context":86},[37,54,69],{"@type":38,"itemListElement":39},"BreadcrumbList",[40,44,48,51],{"item":41,"name":42,"@type":43,"position":21},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":45,"name":46,"@type":43,"position":47},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":49,"name":12,"@type":43,"position":50},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":52,"name":13,"@type":43,"position":53},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/vulnerable-decision-points-in-school-discipline-for-teachers-of-latinoae-students/86662/",4,{"url":52,"name":13,"@type":55,"author":56,"headline":13,"publisher":58,"fileFormat":61,"inLanguage":24,"description":14,"dateModified":62,"datePublished":63,"encodingFormat":61,"isAccessibleForFree":64,"interactionStatistic":65},"DigitalDocument",{"name":9,"@type":57},"Person",{"url":41,"name":59,"@type":60},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-07-29","2026-07-16",true,{"@type":66,"interactionType":67,"userInteractionCount":20},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":68},"ViewAction",{"@type":70,"mainEntity":71},"FAQPage",[72,78,82],{"name":73,"@type":74,"acceptedAnswer":75},"What does the Vulnerable Decision Point (VDP) framework focus on in school discipline decisions?","Question",{"text":76,"@type":77},"It frames discipline outcomes as shaped by educators’ biases and identifies situations where decisions (such as office discipline referrals) are especially susceptible to bias, linking those contexts to disproportionate student outcomes.","Answer",{"name":79,"@type":74,"acceptedAnswer":80},"Do schools typically show office discipline referral (ODR) disparities for Latino/a/e students?",{"text":81,"@type":77},"Most schools do not show significant ODR disparities for Latino/a/e students, indicating inequities are not uniform across settings.",{"name":83,"@type":74,"acceptedAnswer":84},"How do disparity patterns for Latino/a/e students differ across school levels?",{"text":85,"@type":77},"Disparities for Latino/a/e students are more common in high schools than in elementary and middle schools, and when disparities exist, the types of behaviors associated with 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