[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-380337-105":59,"doc-detail-380337-en":130},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":123,"head_meta":125,"extra_data":127,"updated_unix":129},105,"en","virus-like-particle-vlp-vaccines-for-cancer-immunotherapy","Virus-like Particle (VLP) Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy","","Cancer vaccines are explored as an increasingly important approach to both prevent and treat cancers. Multiple prophylactic vaccines against virus-caused malignancies are already approved, yet therapeutic cancer vaccines still require further development. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are self-assembled protein structures that mimic viruses without replication material, enabling high-density antigen display and coordinated cellular and humoral immunity. This review overviews approved and evaluated VLP-based preventive vaccines for HBV and HPV, and summarizes preclinical and early clinical VLP cancer vaccine data with emphasis on HER-2-positive breast cancer.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/virus-like-particle-vlp-vaccines-for-cancer-immunotherapy/380337/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/virus-like-particle-vlp-vaccines-for-cancer-immunotherapy/380337.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"วิน","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-29","2026-09-24",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":44},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why are therapeutic cancer vaccines more difficult than prophylactic vaccines?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"Therapeutic cancer vaccines are harder because tumors often progress by escaping immunosurveillance, requiring strong immune responses against already established tumor cells and persistent antibody activity.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What are virus-like particles (VLPs) and why are they considered safe vaccine platforms?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"VLPs are self-assembled protein nanoparticles that resemble native viruses or bacteriophages but lack replicative genetic material, making them noninfectious and nonreplicative and therefore inherently safer for vaccine development.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"Which preventive VLP-based vaccines does the review focus on?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"The review covers preventive VLP-based vaccines that are currently approved worldwide against HBV and HPV infections, as well as vaccines under evaluation to prevent virus-caused cancers.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},380337,1790652444,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":44,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},2336475104736,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/22000c4c5e0e5b17e70?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1786591360781797222","Review  \nVirus-like Particle (VLP) Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy  \nFrancesca Ruzzi 1, Maria Sofia Semprini 1, Laura Scalambra 1, Arianna Palladini 2, Stefania Angelicola 1, Chiara Cappello 1, Olga Maria Pittino 1, Patrizia Nanni 1 and Pier-Luigi Lollini 1, *  \nCitation: Ruzzi, F.; Semprini, M.S.; Scalambra, L.; Palladini, A.; Angelicola, S.; Cappello, C.; Pittino, O.M.; Nanni, P.; Lollini, P.-L.  \nVirus-like Particle (VLP) Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 12963. [https://doi.org/](https://doi.org/)[ ](https://doi.org/)[10.3390/ijms241612963](10.3390/ijms241612963)  \nAcademic Editors: Valentina Audrito and Laura Conti  \nReceived: 31 July 2023  \nRevised: 14 August 2023  \nAccepted: 17 August 2023  \nPublished: 19 August 2023  \nCopyright: © 2023 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ([https://](https://)[ ](https://)[creativecommons.org/licenses/by/](creativecommons.org/licenses/by/)[ ](creativecommons.org/licenses/by/)[4.0/](4.0/)) .  \n1 Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC) and Alma Mater Institute on Healthy Planet, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; [francesca.ruzzi2@unibo.it](francesca.ruzzi2@unibo.it) (F.R.);  \nmariasofi[a.semprini2@unibo.it](a.semprini2@unibo.it) (M.S.S.); [laura.scalambra2@unibo.it](laura.scalambra2@unibo.it) (L.S.); [stefania.angelicola2@unibo.it](stefania.angelicola2@unibo.it) (S.A.);  \n[chiara.cappello4@unibo.it](chiara.cappello4@unibo.it) (C.C.); olgamaria.pittino@studio.unibo.it (O.M.P.); [patrizia.nanni@unibo.it](patrizia.nanni@unibo.it) (P.N.)  \n2 Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy; arianna.palladini@unipv.it  \n* [Correspondence: pierluigi.lollini@unibo.it](Correspondence: pierluigi.lollini@unibo.it); Tel.: +39-051-2094786  \nAbstract: Cancer vaccines are increasingly being studied as a possible strategy to prevent and treat cancers. While several prophylactic vaccines for virus-caused cancers are approved and efficiently used worldwide, the development of therapeutic cancer vaccines needs to be further implemented. Virus-like particles (VLPs) are self-assembled protein structures that mimic native viruses or bacteriophages but lack the replicative material. VLP platforms are designed to display single or multiple antigens with a high-density pattern, which can trigger both cellular and humoral responses. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of preventive VLP-based vaccines currently approved worldwide against HBV and HPV infections or under evaluation to prevent virus-caused cancers. Furthermore, preclinical and early clinical data on prophylactic and therapeutic VLP-based cancer vaccines were summarized with a focus on HER-2-positive breast cancer.  \nKeywords: cancer immunotherapy; cancer immunoprevention; cancer vaccines; virus-like particles (VLPs); tumor antigens  \n1. Introduction  \nImmunization has been practiced for hundreds of years starting with the discovery of the first vaccine to prevent smallpox infection [1] . In the early 20th century, immunotherapy, as a method of treating cancer, started with the pioneering work of William Coley [2] . Since then, immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment of cancers, mainly owing to “passive” strategies, such as monoclonal antibodies [3,4] . Cancer vaccines might bea promising active antitumor strategy, mainly due to their capability of harnessing both humoral and cellular responses and providing long-term protection [5–8] .  \nCurrently, there are vaccines approved worldwide to prevent malignancies caused by two viruses, the human hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus [4], and only one therapeutic vaccine based on dendritic cells, sipuleucel-T, approved in 2012 for prostate cancer [9] . Of note, the development of a therapeutic cancer vaccine is more complicated than a prophylactic ","cbCaigwOYd5oEbFG","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaigwOYd5oEbFG","pdf",418466,21,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n# Virus-like Particles (VLPs): An Overview","[{\"question\":\"Why are therapeutic cancer vaccines more difficult than prophylactic vaccines?\",\"answer\":\"Therapeutic cancer vaccines are harder because tumors often progress by escaping immunosurveillance, requiring strong immune responses against already established tumor cells and persistent antibody activity.\"},{\"question\":\"What are virus-like particles (VLPs) and why are they considered safe vaccine platforms?\",\"answer\":\"VLPs are self-assembled protein nanoparticles that resemble native viruses or bacteriophages but lack replicative genetic material, making them noninfectious and nonreplicative and therefore inherently safer for vaccine development.\"},{\"question\":\"Which preventive VLP-based vaccines does the review focus on?\",\"answer\":\"The review covers preventive VLP-based vaccines that are currently approved worldwide against HBV and HPV infections, as well as vaccines under evaluation to prevent virus-caused cancers.\"}]","Virus-like Particle (VLP) Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy | PDF",1790239778,53]