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Across four studies, participants scoring in the bottom quartile on tasks of humor, grammar, and logic substantially overestimated performance and ability. Improving participants’ metacognitive skills helped them better recognize 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is one of the essential features of such incompetence that the personso afflicted is incapable of knowing that he is incompetent.To havesuch knowledge would already be to remedy a good portion of theoffense.(Miller,1993,p.4)  \nIn 1995,McArthur Wheeler walked into two Pittsburgh banksand robbed them in broad daylight,with no visible attempt atdisguise.He was arrested later that night,less than an hour aftervideotapes of him taken from surveillance cameras were broadcaston the 11 o'clock news.When police later showed him the sur-veillance tapes,Mr.Wheeler stared in incredulity.“But I wore thejuice,\"he mumbled.Apparently,Mr.Wheeler was under theimpression that rubbing one's face with lemon juice rendered itinvisible to videotape cameras(Fuocco,1996)  \nWe bring up the unfortunate affairs of Mr.Wheeler to makethree points.The first two are noncontroversial.First,in manydomains in life,success and satisfaction depend on knowledge,wisdom,or savvy in knowing which rules to follow and whichstrategies to pursue.This is true not only for committing crimes,but also for many tasks in the social and intellectual domains,such  \nJustin Kruger and David Dunning,Department of Psychology,CornellUniversity.  \nWe thank Betsy Ostrov,Mark Stalnaker,and Boris Veysman for theirassistance in data collection.We also thank Andrew Hayes,Chip Heath,Rich Gonzalez,Ken Savitsky,and David Sherman for their valuablecomments on an earlier version of this article,and Dov Cohen for alertingus to the quote we used to begin this article.Portions of this research werepresented at the annual meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association,Boston,March 1998.This research was supported financially by NationalInstitute of Mental Health Grant RO156072.  \nCorrespondence concerning this article should be addressed to JustinKruger,who is now at the Department of Psychology,University of Illinoisat Urbana-Champaign,603 East Daniel Street,Champaign,Illinois 61820,or to David Dunning,Department of Psychology,Uris Hall,CornellUniversity,Ithaca,New York 14853-7601.Electronic mail may be sent toJustin Kruger at jkruger@s.psych.uiuc.edu or to David Dunning atdad6@cornell.edu.  \n# Unskilled and Unaware of It:How Difficulties in Recognizing One's OwnIncompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments\n\nJustin Kruger and David DunningCornell University  \nPeople tend to hold overly favorable views of their abilities in many social and intellectual domains.Theauthors suggest that this overestimation occurs,in part,because people who are unskilled in thesedomains suffer a dual burden:Not only do these people reach erroneous conclusions and makeunfortunate choices,but their incompetence robs them of the metacognitive ability to realize it.Across 4studies,the authors found that participants scoring in the bottom quartile on tests of humor,grammar,andlogic grossly overestimated their test performance and ability.Although their test scores put them in the12th percentile,they estimated themselves to be in the 62nd.Several analyses linked this miscalibrationto deficits in metacognitive skill,or the capacity to distinguish accuracy from error.Paradoxically,improving the skills of participants,and thus increasing their metacognitive competence,helped themrecognize the limitations of their abilities.  \nas promoting effective leadership,raising children,constructing asolid logical argument,or designing a rigorous psychologicalstudy.Second,people differ widely in the knowledge and strate-gies they apply in these domains(Dunning,Meyerowitz,&Holz-berg,1989;Dunning,Perie,&Story,1991;Story &Dunning,1998),with varying levels of success.Some of the knowledge andtheories that people apply to their actions are sound and meet withfavorable results.Others,like the lemon juice hypothesis ofMcArthur Wheeler,are imperfect at best and wrong-headed,in-competent,or dysfunctional at worst.  \nPerhaps more controversial is the third point,the one that is thefocus of this article.We argue that when people are incompeten","cbCaiolaKHZllr2M","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiolaKHZllr2M","pdf",1601126,14,"English","# Overview\n## Imperfect Self-Assessments","[{\"question\":\"为什么不熟练的人常常会高估自己的能力？\",\"answer\":\"文中指出，这与双重负担有关：不熟练不仅会做出错误判断与选择，还会被其无能剥夺元认知能力，从而难以意识到自己可能在犯错。\"},{\"question\":\"四项研究考察了哪些能力任务？结果如何？\",\"answer\":\"研究让被试在幽默、语法与逻辑等任务上测评表现。处于底部四分位的参与者显著高估自己的能力；例如，即使分数大约在第12百分位，他们估计自己在第62百分位左右。\"},{\"question\":\"提升元认知能力会带来什么变化？\",\"answer\":\"文章称，提升参与者技能、从而增强元认知能力，反而帮助他们识别自身能力的局限，更接近准确自评。\"}]","Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One's Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments | PDF",35]