[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-665574-105":59,"doc-detail-665574-en":130},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":123,"head_meta":125,"extra_data":127,"updated_unix":129},105,"en","tutorial-on-work-function-work-function-in-metals-semiconductors-measurement-techniques","Tutorial on Work Function - Work Function in Metals - Semiconductors - Measurement Techniques","","Tutorial explaining work function (Φ) with energy-level diagrams for metals and semiconductors, linking Φ to the minimum energy to remove an electron and clarifying how surface condition and contamination alter it. Describes how semiconductors differ: Fermi level placement within the band gap changes the relation between work function and ionization energy, requiring Fermi statistics consideration. Covers measurement approaches using PES and Kelvin probe, then details UPS/PES spectral features for extracting Φ and outlines Kelvin probe calibration to obtain absolute values.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":30,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/technology/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/tutorial-on-work-function-work-function-in-metals-semiconductors-measurement-techniques/665574/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/tutorial-on-work-function-work-function-in-metals-semiconductors-measurement-techniques/665574.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"GGG","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-30","2026-10-29",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":81},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What does the work function represent for metals?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"Work function corresponds to the energy difference between the Fermi energy and the vacuum level, i.e., the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from the metal surface.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"How do surface contamination and reactions affect work function?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"Minute contamination and surface reactions such as oxidation can substantially change the work function, commonly by about 1 eV due to electric dipole formation at the surface.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How are work functions measured using PES and Kelvin probe?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Work function can be measured with PES for absolute values, while Kelvin probe measures the contact potential difference; calibrating Kelvin probe results with PES allows conversion to absolute work function.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},665574,1793305004,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":29,"category_name":30,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":81,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":81,"language":139,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":140,"faqs":141,"seo_title":142,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":129,"read_time":39},962093532725,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_276721f389ce27ea32af1340a28f341c","Tutorial on Work Function  \nBy Dr. Rudy Schlaf  \nWork function in metals: Figure 1 shows a schematic energy diagram of a metal. The valence bands are filled with electrons up to the Fermi energy (EF) . The energy difference between Fermi energy and vacuum level corresponds to the work function (Φ) . The work function corresponds to the minimum amount of energy needed to remove an electron from the metal. In metals , work function and ionization energy are the same. The work function of a surface is strongly affected by the condition of the surface. The presence of minute amounts of contamination (less than a monolayer of atoms or molecules), or the occurrence of surface reactions (oxidation or similar) can change the work function substantially. Changes of the order of 1 eV are common for metals and semiconductors, depending on the surface condition. These changes are a result of the formation of electric dipoles at the surface, which change the energy an electron needs to leave the sample. Due to the sensitivity of the work function to chemical changes on surfaces , its measurement can give valuable insight into the condition of a given surface. The work function also has significant influence of the band line-up at semiconductor interfaces (see interfaces tutorial) .  \nWork function in semiconductors: Figure 2 shows a schematic energy diagram of a n-type semiconductor. Valence bands and conduction bands are separated by the band gap (Eg) . In a non-  \nFig.1 : Schematic energy diagram of  \na metal.  \nFig.2: Schematic energy diagram of a semiconductor.  \ndegenerate semiconductor (having a moderate doping level), the Fermi level is located within the band gap. This means the work function is now different from the ionization energy (energy difference between valence bands maximum (VBM) and vacuum level) . In a semiconductor, the Fermi level becomes a somewhat theoretical construct since there are no allowed electronic states within the band gap. This means the Fermi distribution needs to be considered , which is a statistical function that gives the probability to find an electron in a given electronic state. The Fermi level refers to the point on the energy scale where the probability is just 50% . Even if there are no electrons right at the Fermi level in a semiconductor , the work function can be measured by photoemission spectroscopy(PES) .  \nWork function measurement techniques: The work function of a material can be measured with PES and Kelvin probe (KP) . While PES allows the measurement of the absolute work function, KP only gives the contact potential difference (CPD) between the actual probe and the sample surface. Calibration with PES allows turning KP results into absolute values.  \nWork function using PES: Figure 3 shows a typical UPS spectrum of a gold sample. The spectrum consists of three features of interest: The spectrum is calibrated in a way that the Fermi level is located at 0 eV binding energy. The Fermi level  \n(or “edge”) manifests itself as a step , since it separates occupied and empty states (PES works only with occupied states, since there need to be electrons that can be photoemitted, i.e. states above the Fermi level do notemit electrons) . Further to the left at low binding energies (0- 10 eV) the valence bands structures of Au are visible. The strong peaks correspond to the d-bands of Au, which have a high density of states and are  \nfairly narrow. Then there is the high binding energy cutoff (or  \n“secondary edge”), where the spectrum ends. Electrons close to the edge are the slowest electrons of the spectrum (right at the edge they have a kinetic energy of zero after leaving the sample surface, i.e. they had barely enough energy to overcome the work function of the material) . The electrons responsible for the secondary edge and the sloping up tail before the edge are inelastically scattered electrons, which were initially emitted from the valence bands states, but lost energy through scatteri","cbCaigdiwSYGuh07","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaigdiwSYGuh07","pdf",400985,"English","# Work function in metals\n# Work function in semiconductors\n# Work function measurement techniques\n# Work function using PES\n# Work function using KP","[{\"question\":\"What does the work function represent for metals?\",\"answer\":\"Work function corresponds to the energy difference between the Fermi energy and the vacuum level, i.e., the minimum energy needed to remove an electron from the metal surface.\"},{\"question\":\"How do surface contamination and reactions affect work function?\",\"answer\":\"Minute contamination and surface reactions such as oxidation can substantially change the work function, commonly by about 1 eV due to electric dipole formation at the surface.\"},{\"question\":\"How are work functions measured using PES and Kelvin probe?\",\"answer\":\"Work function can be measured with PES for absolute values, while Kelvin probe measures the contact potential difference; calibrating Kelvin probe results with PES allows conversion to absolute work function.\"}]","Tutorial on Work Function - Work Function in Metals - Semiconductors - Measurement Techniques | PDF"]