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Extracted outcomes covered eye-contact definitions and measurements, AI tools and modalities, effectiveness, generalization, and social validity, with quality and risk-of-bias assessed using JBI and SCED.",{"@graph":14,"@context":73},[15,34,56],{"@type":16,"itemListElement":17},"BreadcrumbList",[18,23,27,31],{"item":19,"name":20,"@type":21,"position":22},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",1,{"item":24,"name":25,"@type":21,"position":26},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":28,"name":29,"@type":21,"position":30},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/","Research & 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evidence?",{"text":72,"@type":64},"Evidence remains limited by small sample sizes and differences in how eye contact is defined and measured, along with limited data on generalization and social validity.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":32,"og:type":75,"og:title":10,"og:site_name":45,"og:description":12},"article",{"robots":77,"canonical":32},"index,follow",{"doc_id":79,"site_id":7},457619,1791158753,{"code":4,"msg":82,"data":83},"success",[84,88,92,96,101,106,111,115,120,123,126],{"id":22,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":85,"show_sort_weight":86,"slug":87},"Story & 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\n[https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07702-6](https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-025-07702-6)  \nBMC Psychiatry  \nSYSTEMATIC REVIEW Open Access  \nThe role of artificial intelligence interventions  to improve eye contact for children  \nwith autism spectrum disorder: a systematic review  \nŞenol Demirtaş1 and Metin Besalti2,3*  \nAbstract  \nBackground Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often struggle with eye contact during social interactions, a key aspect of effective communication. In recent years, various artificial intelligence (AI)-based interventions have been developed to support children with ASD. This study aims to systematically review the published literature on the AI-based interventions for improving eye contact.  \nMethods The review adhered to the 2020 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Two researchers searched six databases: Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, APA PsycInfo, Education Source, and IEEE Xplore, which initially yielded 1663 records. After screening and eligibility assessment, 16 studies met all inclusion criteria. Data were extracted through a narrative synthesis focusing on key variables, including study characteristics (author, year, region, sample, design, setting, and duration), definitions and measurements of eye contact, AI tool, and technological modalities, findings including reported effectiveness, generalization and maintenance outcomes, as well as whether social validity was assessed in each study. Two researchers independently conducted data extraction, quality assessment, and risk-of-bias evaluation using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) checklists and the Single-Case Experimental Design (SCED) scale.  \nResults Included studies used a variety of AI-based tools. The most frequently used intervention modality was robotic systems, which were used in 12 studies, followed by wearable technologies (two studies), virtual reality (one), and game-based software (one) . Preliminary findings suggest that AI technologies are often associated with increases in the frequency and duration of eye contact. Six studies (38%) assessed generalization of treatment effects, generally reporting positive outcomes, while seven studies (44%) assessed social validity. The research mostly utilized quantitative designs, including randomized controlled trials, repeated measure designs, single-subject research designs, and quasi-experimental designs. One qualitative case study and one case report were also identified. Methodological quality ratings ranged from moderate to high across study designs.  \nNote:*Studies included in the systematic review  \n*Correspondence: Metin Besalti  \n[besalti@artvin.edu.tr](besalti@artvin.edu.tr); [metinbesalti@usf.edu](metinbesalti@usf.edu)  \nFull list of author information is available at the end of the article  \n© The Author(s) 2025. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit [http://creati](http://creati)[vecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/](vecommons.org/licenses/by-nc","cbCaijsSUvmtsvXW","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaijsSUvmtsvXW","pdf",2206782,21,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n## Autism spectrum disorder and eye contact challenges\n## The role of eye contact in social communication and learning\n# Methods\n## Search strategy and study selection\n## Data extraction and quality assessment\n# Results\n## Types of AI interventions and outcomes\n# Conclusion","[{\"question\":\"What is the main purpose of this systematic review?\",\"answer\":\"To systematically review published AI-based interventions intended to improve eye contact in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).\"},{\"question\":\"Which AI intervention modalities were most commonly used?\",\"answer\":\"Robotic systems were the most frequently used modality (12 studies), followed by wearable technologies (two studies), virtual reality (one), and game-based software (one).\"},{\"question\":\"What limitations does the review note about current evidence?\",\"answer\":\"Evidence remains limited by small sample sizes and differences in how eye contact is defined and measured, along with limited data on generalization and social validity.\"}]","The role of artificial intelligence interventions to improve eye contact for children with autism spectrum disorder - a systematic review | PDF",1790749948,53]