[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-detail-289924-en":59,"doc-seo-289924-105":82},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":60},{"doc_id":61,"user_id":62,"nickname":63,"user_avatar":64,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":66,"doc_content":67,"file_id":68,"file_url":69,"file_type":70,"file_size":71,"view_count":72,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":73,"language":74,"language_code":75,"site_id":76,"html_lang":75,"table_of_contents":77,"faqs":78,"seo_title":79,"seo_description":66,"update_tm":80,"read_time":81,"preview_page_count":4},289924,549768702563,"Fahsai","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/8000c4aa63b76e948b?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1786536092046926083","The Malleability of Spatial Skills - A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies","Good spatial skills strongly predict achievement and attainment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. To test whether and to what extent training and experience improve spatial skills, a meta-analysis of 217 research studies examined the magnitude of training effects, moderators, durability, and generalizability. After removing outliers, training showed a moderate average effect relative to control and produced stable gains unaffected by posttest delays, with transfer to untrained spatial tasks. Effects also varied by moderator variables and a theoretically grounded spatial-skills typology, informing educational and policy implications.","Psychological Bulletin © 2012 American Psychological Association  \n0033-2909/12/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0028446  \nThe Malleability of Spatial Skills: A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies  \nDavid H. Uttal, Nathaniel G. Meadow, Elizabeth Tipton, Linda L. Hand, Alison R. Alden, and Christopher Warren  \nNorthwestern University  \nNora S. Newcombe Temple University  \nHaving good spatial skills strongly predicts achievement and attainment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields (e.g., Shea, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2001; Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009) . Improving spatial skills is therefore of both theoretical and practical importance. To determine whether and to what extent training and experience can improve these skills, we meta-analyzed 217 research studies investigating the magnitude, moderators, durability, and generalizability of training on spatial skills. After eliminating outliers, the average effect size (Hedges’s g) for training relative to control was 0.47 (SE 􀀁 0.04) . Training effects were stable and were not affected by delays between training and posttesting. Training also transferred to other spatial tasks that were not directly trained. We analyzed the effects of several moderators, including the presence and type of control groups, sex, age, and type of training. Additionally, we included a theoretically motivated typology of spatial skills that emphasizes 2 dimensions: intrinsic versus extrinsic and static versus dynamic (Newcombe & Shipley, in press) . Finally, we consider the potential educational and policy implications of directly training spatial skills. Considered together, the results suggest that spatially enriched education could pay substantial dividends in increasing participation in mathematics, science, and engineering.  \nKeywords: spatial skills, training, meta-analysis, transfer, STEM  \nThe nature and extent of malleability are central questions in developmental and educational psychology (Bornstein, 1989) . To what extent can experience alter people’s abilities? Does the effect of experience change over time? Are there critical or sensitive periods for influencing development? What are the origins and determinants of individual variation in response to environmental input? Spirited debate on these matters is long-standing, and still continues. However, there is renewed interest in malleability in behavioral and neuroscientific research on development (e.g., M. H. Johnson, Munakata, & Gilmore, 2002; National Research Council [NRC], 2000; Stiles, 2008) . Similarly, recent economic, educational, and psychological research has focused on the capacity of educational experiences to maximize human potential, reduce inequality (e.g., Duncan et al., 2007; Heckman & Masterov, 2007), and foster competence in a variety of school subjects,  \nDavid H. Uttal, Nathaniel G. Meadow, Elizabeth Tipton, Linda L. Hand, Alison R. Alden, and Christopher Warren, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University; Nora S. Newcombe, Department of Psychology, Temple University.  \nThis work was supported by the Spatial Intelligence and Learning Center (National Science Foundation Grant SBE0541957) and by the Institute for Education Sciences (U.S. Department of Education Grant R305H020088) . We thank David B. Wilson, Larry Hedges, Loren M. Marulis, and Spyros Konstantopoulos for their help in designing and analyzing the meta-analysis. We also thank Greg Ericksson and Kate O’Doherty for assistance in coding and Kseniya Povod and Kate Bailey for assistance with references and proofreading.  \nCorrespondence concerning this article should be addressed to David H. Uttal, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, 2029 Sheridan Road, Evanston, IL 60208-2710 . E-mail: [duttal@northwestern.edu](duttal@northwestern.edu)  \nincluding reading (e.g., Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001), mathematics (e.g., U.S. Department of Education, 2008), and science and engineering (NRC, 2009) .  \nThis article dev","cbCaijc8Efjd6rvA","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaijc8Efjd6rvA","pdf",1769500,14,52,"English","en",105,"# Introduction\n## Malleability questions in development and education\n# Meta-analysis scope and outcomes\n## Magnitude, moderators, durability, and generalizability\n# Implications for education and policy","[{\"question\":\"How many studies were included in the meta-analysis, and what was analyzed?\",\"answer\":\"The meta-analysis included 217 research studies and examined the magnitude of training effects, moderators, durability over time, and generalizability/transfer to other tasks.\"},{\"question\":\"What does the analysis show about the stability and timing of training effects?\",\"answer\":\"Training effects were stable and were not affected by delays between training and posttesting.\"},{\"question\":\"Does training on spatial skills transfer to untrained tasks?\",\"answer\":\"Yes. Training transferred to other spatial tasks that were not directly trained, indicating generalization beyond the practiced activities.\"}]","The Malleability of Spatial Skills - A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies | PDF",1789638535,131,{"code":4,"msg":83,"data":84},"ok",{"site_id":76,"language":75,"slug":85,"title":65,"keywords":86,"description":66,"schema_data":87,"social_meta":141,"head_meta":143,"extra_data":145,"updated_unix":80},"the-malleability-of-spatial-skills-a-meta-analysis-of-training-studies","",{"@graph":88,"@context":140},[89,103,123],{"@type":90,"itemListElement":91},"BreadcrumbList",[92,96,98,101],{"item":93,"name":94,"@type":95,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":97,"name":9,"@type":95,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":99,"name":40,"@type":95,"position":100},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":102,"name":65,"@type":95,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/the-malleability-of-spatial-skills-a-meta-analysis-of-training-studies/289924/",{"url":102,"name":65,"@type":104,"image":105,"author":110,"headline":65,"publisher":112,"fileFormat":115,"inLanguage":75,"description":66,"dateModified":116,"datePublished":117,"encodingFormat":115,"isAccessibleForFree":118,"interactionStatistic":119},"DigitalDocument",{"url":106,"@type":107,"width":108,"height":109},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/the-malleability-of-spatial-skills-a-meta-analysis-of-training-studies/289924.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":63,"@type":111},"Person",{"url":93,"name":113,"@type":114},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-29","2026-09-17",true,{"@type":120,"interactionType":121,"userInteractionCount":72},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":122},"ViewAction",{"@type":124,"mainEntity":125},"FAQPage",[126,132,136],{"name":127,"@type":128,"acceptedAnswer":129},"How many studies were included in the meta-analysis, and what was analyzed?","Question",{"text":130,"@type":131},"The meta-analysis included 217 research studies and examined the magnitude of training effects, moderators, durability over time, and generalizability/transfer to other tasks.","Answer",{"name":133,"@type":128,"acceptedAnswer":134},"What does the analysis show about the stability and timing of training effects?",{"text":135,"@type":131},"Training effects were stable and were not affected by delays between training and posttesting.",{"name":137,"@type":128,"acceptedAnswer":138},"Does training on spatial skills transfer to untrained tasks?",{"text":139,"@type":131},"Yes. Training transferred to other spatial tasks that were not directly trained, indicating generalization beyond the practiced activities.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":102,"og:type":142,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":113,"og:description":66},"article",{"robots":144,"canonical":102},"index,follow",{"doc_id":61,"site_id":76}]