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Results also show transfer to untrained spatial tasks, analyzed through moderators such as control group type, sex, age, and training type, alongside implications for education and STEM participation.",{"@graph":14,"@context":73},[15,34,56],{"@type":16,"itemListElement":17},"BreadcrumbList",[18,23,27,31],{"item":19,"name":20,"@type":21,"position":22},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",1,{"item":24,"name":25,"@type":21,"position":26},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":28,"name":29,"@type":21,"position":30},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/","Research & Report",3,{"item":32,"name":10,"@type":21,"position":33},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/the-malleability-of-spatial-skills-a-meta-analysis-of-training-studies-289928/289928/",4,{"url":32,"name":10,"@type":35,"image":36,"author":41,"headline":10,"publisher":44,"fileFormat":47,"inLanguage":8,"description":12,"dateModified":48,"datePublished":49,"encodingFormat":47,"isAccessibleForFree":50,"interactionStatistic":51},"DigitalDocument",{"url":37,"@type":38,"width":39,"height":40},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/the-malleability-of-spatial-skills-a-meta-analysis-of-training-studies-289928/289928.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":42,"@type":43},"วิน","Person",{"url":19,"name":45,"@type":46},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-11","2026-09-17",true,{"@type":52,"interactionType":53,"userInteractionCount":55},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":54},"ViewAction",18,{"@type":57,"mainEntity":58},"FAQPage",[59,65,69],{"name":60,"@type":61,"acceptedAnswer":62},"What does the meta-analysis examine regarding spatial skills training?","Question",{"text":63,"@type":64},"It investigates the magnitude of training effects on spatial skills, along with moderators, durability after training, and generalizability to other tasks.","Answer",{"name":66,"@type":61,"acceptedAnswer":67},"Are training effects stable over time in the analyzed studies?",{"text":68,"@type":64},"Yes. Training effects were stable and were not affected by delays between training and posttesting.",{"name":70,"@type":61,"acceptedAnswer":71},"Does training transfer to tasks that were not directly trained?",{"text":72,"@type":64},"Yes. Training transferred to other spatial tasks beyond the ones directly trained.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":32,"og:type":75,"og:title":10,"og:site_name":45,"og:description":12},"article",{"robots":77,"canonical":32},"index,follow",{"doc_id":79,"site_id":7},289928,1789638545,{"code":4,"msg":82,"data":83},"success",[84,88,92,96,101,106,111,115,120,123,127],{"id":22,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":85,"show_sort_weight":86,"slug":87},"Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":26,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":89,"show_sort_weight":90,"slug":91},"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":33,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":93,"show_sort_weight":94,"slug":95},"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":97,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":98,"show_sort_weight":99,"slug":100},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":102,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":103,"show_sort_weight":104,"slug":105},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":107,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":108,"show_sort_weight":109,"slug":110},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":112,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":29,"show_sort_weight":113,"slug":114},8,30,"research-report",{"id":116,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":117,"show_sort_weight":118,"slug":119},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":118,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":121,"show_sort_weight":118,"slug":122},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":124,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":125,"show_sort_weight":124,"slug":126},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":128,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":25,"category_name":129,"show_sort_weight":97,"slug":130},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":82,"data":132},{"doc_id":79,"user_id":133,"nickname":42,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":112,"category_name":29,"doc_title":10,"doc_description":12,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":55,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":22,"is_downloadable":22,"audit_status":22,"page_count":140,"language":141,"language_code":8,"site_id":7,"html_lang":8,"table_of_contents":142,"faqs":143,"seo_title":144,"seo_description":12,"update_tm":80,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},2336475104736,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/22000c4c5e0e5b17e70?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1786591360781797222",".  \ny  \nl  \nd  \na  \n. o  \ns r  \nr b  \ne hd  \ns e  \ni t  \nl a  \nbuni  \np m  \nd e  \ne s  \ni s  \nli  \nlda  \nst ebi  \nf ot  \no  \nt  \ne o  \nn n  \no s  \nr i  \nod  \nno na  \ni r  \ntai es  \nc u  \no l  \ns a  \nsA ud  \nil v  \na i  \ncd  \nigniol e  \noh h t  \ncf  \ny o  \ns e  \nP s  \nn u  \na l  \nc a  \ni n  \nre os  \nm re  \nA p  \ne e  \nhh  \nt t  \ny r  \nbof  \nd y  \ne l  \nt e  \nhl  \ng o  \ni sr  \nyd  \npoed  \nc n  \ne  \ns t  \ni nt i  \nn s  \ne i  \nm e  \nu lc  \nc i  \no tr  \nd a  \ns s  \nii  \nhh  \nT T  \nPsychological Bulletin © 2012 American Psychological Association  \n2013, Vol. 139, No. 2, 352–402 0033-2909/13/$12 .00 DOI: 10 . 1037/a0028446  \nThe Malleability of Spatial Skills: A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies  \nDavid H. Uttal, Nathaniel G. Meadow, Elizabeth Tipton, Linda L. Hand, Alison R. Alden, and Christopher Warren  \nNorthwestern University  \nNora S. Newcombe Temple University  \nHaving good spatial skills strongly predicts achievement and attainment in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields (e.g., Shea, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2001; Wai, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2009) . Improving spatial skills is therefore of both theoretical and practical importance. To determine whether and to what extent training and experience can improve these skills, we meta-analyzed 217 research studies investigating the magnitude, moderators, durability, and generalizability of training on spatial skills. After eliminating outliers, the average effect size (Hedges’s g) for training relative to control was 0.47 (SE 􀀁 0.04) . Training effects were stable and were not affected by delays between training and posttesting. Training also transferred to other spatial tasks that were not directly trained. We analyzed the effects of several moderators, including the presence and type of control groups, sex, age, and type of training. Additionally, we included a theoretically motivated typology of spatial skills that emphasizes 2 dimensions: intrinsic versus extrinsic and static versus dynamic (Newcombe & Shipley, in press) . Finally, we consider the potential educational and policy implications of directly training spatial skills. Considered together, the results suggest that spatially enriched education could pay substantial dividends in increasing participation in mathematics, science, and engineering.  \nKeywords: spatial skills, training, meta-analysis, transfer, STEM  \nThe nature and extent of malleability are central questions in developmental and educational psychology (Bornstein, 1989) . To what extent can experience alter people’s abilities? Does the effect of experience change over time? Are there critical or sensitive periods for influencing development? What are the origins and determinants of individual variation in response to environmental input? Spirited debate on these matters is long-standing, and still continues. However, there is renewed interest in malleability in behavioral and neuroscientific research on development (e.g., M. H. Johnson, Munakata, & Gilmore, 2002; National Research Council [NRC], 2000; Stiles, 2008) . Similarly, recent economic, educational, and psychological research has focused on the capacity of educational experiences to maximize human potential, reduce inequality (e.g., Duncan et al., 2007; Heckman & Masterov, 2007), and foster competence in a variety of school subjects,  \nThis article was published Online First June 4, 2012 .  \nDavid H. Uttal, Nathaniel G. Meadow, Elizabeth Tipton, Linda L. Hand, Alison R. Alden, and Christopher Warren, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University; Nora S. Newcombe, Department of Psychology, Temple University.  \nThis work was supported by the Spatial Intelligence and Learning Center (National Science Foundation Grant SBE0541957) and by the Institute for Education Sciences (U.S. Department of Education Grant R305H020088) . We thank David B. Wilson, Larry Hedges, Loren M. Marulis, and Spyros Konstantopoulos for their help in designing and analyzing the metaanalysis. We also thank Greg Eri","cbCailMaPEBNNGpF","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCailMaPEBNNGpF","pdf",669646,51,"English","# Abstract\n## Training effects and stability\n## Transfer to untrained tasks\n## Moderator analyses and typology\n## Educational and policy implications","[{\"question\":\"What does the meta-analysis examine regarding spatial skills training?\",\"answer\":\"It investigates the magnitude of training effects on spatial skills, along with moderators, durability after training, and generalizability to other tasks.\"},{\"question\":\"Are training effects stable over time in the analyzed studies?\",\"answer\":\"Yes. Training effects were stable and were not affected by delays between training and posttesting.\"},{\"question\":\"Does training transfer to tasks that were not directly trained?\",\"answer\":\"Yes. Training transferred to other spatial tasks beyond the ones directly trained.\"}]","The Malleability of Spatial Skills - A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies | PDF",129]