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To reduce racial suspension gaps, four California districts banned suspensions for willful defiance, a category of relatively minor disruptive offenses. Using a difference-in-differences design exploiting staggered policy enactment over time, the study finds decreases in willful defiance out-of-school suspensions but no reduction in overall out-of-school suspension rates. It also shows increased out-of-school suspensions for Black students, especially where Black teacher representation is small, suggesting these bans did not eliminate bias in discipline.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/the-impact-of-suspension-reforms-on-discipline-outcomes-evidence-from-california-high-schools/590144/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/the-impact-of-suspension-reforms-on-discipline-outcomes-evidence-from-california-high-schools/590144.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Adam","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-06","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":24},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What policy change do the four California districts implement?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"They banned schools from issuing out-of-school suspensions for willful defiance, defined as a category of relatively minor disruptive offenses.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"How does the study estimate the impact of these bans?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"It uses a difference-in-differences strategy that exploits temporal variation in when each district enacted the policy.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"Do the bans reduce overall out-of-school suspension rates?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"No. The policies decreased willful defiance out-of-school suspension rates but did not reduce overall out-of-school suspension rates.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},590144,1792068903,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":24,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":46,"language":139,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":140,"faqs":141,"seo_title":142,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":129,"read_time":31,"preview_page_count":4},1374404737137,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_155a257f0dc6eb9ab79c44ca47cae57d","AERA Open  \nJanuary-December 2022, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 1–20 DOI: 10. 1177/23328584211068067  \nArticle reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)© The Author(s) 2022. [https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero](https://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero)  \nThe Impact of Suspension Reforms on Discipline Outcomes: Evidence  \nFrom California High Schools  \nRui Wang  \nShanghai University of Finance and Economics  \nMinority students are suspended at a disproportionately higher rate compared with others. To reduce racial suspension gaps, four California school districts banned schools from suspending students for willful defiance, a category consisting of relatively minor disruptive offenses. I evaluate the impact of these policies on high school student discipline outcomes using a difference-in-differences strategy that exploits the temporal variation in the enactment of these policies across school districts. The results suggest that while these policies decreased willful defiance out-of-school suspension rates by around 69%, they did not reduce overall out-of-school suspension rates. Infact, the policies significantly increased out-of-school suspension rates among Black students, particularly in schools with a small share of Black teachers. Taken together, the results suggest that the willful defiance suspension bans failed to address implicit and explicit biases in California schools.  \nKeywords: suspension reform, Black students, discipline outcomes  \nOut-Of-schOOl suspension (OSS) is one of the most commonly used discipline actions in U.S. schools: over the past 20 years, about 5% of students received at least one OSS each year (de Brey et al., 2019). While there may be justifiable grounds for excluding disruptive students from the classroom, such as protecting other students’ safety and learning, a large proportion of OSSs are issued to students committing minor infractions that pose little to no direct threat to their classmates. This misapplication of OSS deprives students of educational opportunities and more generally harms the school learning environment by creating shared stress (Pena-Shaff et al., 2019) .  \nSuspension is associated with poor academic performance, school dropout, crime, and delinquency (Anderson et al., 2019; Bacher-Hicks et al., 2019; Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Wald & Losen, 2003) . In addition, the overuse of suspension may exacerbate disparities in learning outcomes among students from different demographic and socioeconomic groups (Gopalan & Nelson, 2019; Gregory et al., 2010; Pearman et al., 2019) . Black students are at least twice as likely to be suspended as White students (Losen & Gillespie, 2012) and are suspended for longer periods, even when involved in the same type of incidents (Barrett et al., 2019) . This suggests that levels of discretion and potential biases in the use of suspension for minor disorder infractions could disproportionately harm Black students, thus widening existing racial achievement gaps.  \nSeveral theories examine the impact of suspension on student outcomes both inside and outside of the classroom.  \nPositive intervention and restorative justice (RJ) theories argue that suspension could lead to unintended long-term consequences, such as deterioration of the school atmosphere, entrenched antisocial behavior, and increases in instances of misconduct (Gonzalez, 2012; Mowen et al., 2020; Pesta, 2018; Sugai & Horner, 2002; Way, 2011) . Empirical studies on the incapacitation effect of school suggest that excluding misbehaved students from schools increases their risk of engaging in criminal activities (Cuellar & Markowitz, 2015; Jacob & Lefgren, 2003; Luallen, 2006) . Although the deterrence theory posits that stricter discipline can induce students to comply with rules and authorities (Kinsler, 2013; Nagin, 2013), considerable evidence has shown that the use of a less punitive discipline approach incre","cbCaib7Ua6vkb71D","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaib7Ua6vkb71D","pdf",1504868,"English","# Introduction and Motivation\n## Suspension misuse and racial disparities\n## Theoretical perspectives on suspension effects\n# Discipline Reforms and Policy Background\n## Prior reform evidence\n## California willful defiance suspension bans\n# Research Design and Findings\n## Difference-in-differences identification strategy\n## Effects on willful defiance and overall OSS\n## Differential effects for Black students\n# Conclusion","[{\"question\":\"What policy change do the four California districts implement?\",\"answer\":\"They banned schools from issuing out-of-school suspensions for willful defiance, defined as a category of relatively minor disruptive offenses.\"},{\"question\":\"How does the study estimate the impact of these bans?\",\"answer\":\"It uses a difference-in-differences strategy that exploits temporal variation in when each district enacted the policy.\"},{\"question\":\"Do the bans reduce overall out-of-school suspension rates?\",\"answer\":\"No. The policies decreased willful defiance out-of-school suspension rates but did not reduce overall out-of-school suspension rates.\"}]","The Impact of Suspension Reforms on Discipline Outcomes: Evidence From California High Schools | PDF"]