[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-40015-en":3,"doc-seo-40015-105":30,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":92},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":20,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":21,"is_downloadable":21,"audit_status":21,"page_count":22,"language":23,"language_code":24,"site_id":25,"html_lang":24,"table_of_contents":26,"faqs":27,"seo_title":13,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":28,"read_time":29},40015,1374391975076,"Riley","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/14000253ca4ec9f6853?x-image-process=image/resize,m_fixed,w_180,h_180&k=1783305029341752051",8,"Research & Report","The Four-Category Ontology: A Metaphysical Foundation for Natural Science","The work develops a four-category ontology as a metaphysical foundation for natural science, built from two cross-cutting distinctions: particular vs universal, and substantial vs non-substantial. It defines the four categories as substantial particulars, non-substantial particulars (tropes or modes), substantial universals (substantial kinds such as natural kinds), and non-substantial universals (properties and relations). The author argues for the ontology’s explanatory power in topics including causation, dispositions, natural laws, natural necessity, and the semantics of counterfactuals.","THE FOUR-CATEGORY ONTOLOGY  \nThis page intentionally left blank  \nThe Four-Category Ontology  \nA Metaphysical Foundation for Natural Science  \nE . J. LOWE  \nCLARENDON PRESS ● OXFORD  \n1  \nGreat Clarendon Street, Oxford ox􀀁 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in  \nOxford New York Auckland CapeTown Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto  \nWith offices in  \nArgentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © E. J. Lowe 2006  \nThe moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker)  \nFirst published 2006  \nAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press,  \nor as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available  \nLibrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lowe, E. J. (E. Jonathan) The four-category ontology : a metaphysical foundation for natural science / E.J. Lowe.  \n[p. cm](p. cm).  \n1. Ontology. 2. Metaphysics. 3. Science—Philosophy. I. Title.  \nQ175.32.058L69 2006 501—dc22 2005020679  \nTypeset by Newgen Imaging Systems (P) Ltd., Chennai, India Printed in Great Britain  \non acid-free paper by  \nBiddles Ltd., King’s Lynn, Norfolk ISBN 0–19–925439–7 978–0–19–925439–2  \n1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2  \nPreface  \nBy ‘the four-category ontology’ I mean a system of ontology which recognizes two fundamental categorial distinctions which cut across each other to generate four fundamental ontological categories, these distinctions being between the particularand the universal and between the substantial and the non-substantial. The four categories thus generated are substantial particulars, non-substantial particulars, substantial universals, and non-substantial universals. Non-substantial universals include properties and relations, conceived as universals. Non-substantial particulars include property-and relation-instances, otherwise known as non-relational and relational ‘tropes’ or—as I prefer to call them—modes. Substantial particulars include propertied individuals, the paradigm examples of which are persisting, concrete objects. Substantial universals are otherwise known as substantial kinds and include as paradigm examples natural kinds of persisting objects. This ontology has a lengthy pedigree, many commentators attributing it to Aristotle on the basis of certain passages in his apparently early work, the Categories. At various times during the history of western philosophy, it has been revived or rediscovered, but it has never found widespread favour, perhaps on account of its apparent lack of parsimony as well as its commitment to universals. In pursuit of ontological economy, metaphysicians have generally preferred to recognize fewer than four fundamental ontological categories. Indeed, present-day metaphysicians who are self-styled ‘trope theorists’ advertise their position as being a one-category ontology and see this as being one of its principal attractions. But, of course, Occam’s razor stipulates only that we should not m","cbCaijLLNJVC1aUi","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaijLLNJVC1aUi","pdf",2636450,5,1,237,"English","en",105,"# Preface\n## Core distinctions and generated categories\n## Non-substantial universals and particulars (properties, relations, tropes/modes)\n## Substantial particulars and substantial universals (kinds)\n## Historical background and motivation for ontological economy\n## Prior work and extensions leading to the book","[{\"question\":\"What are the two fundamental distinctions behind the four-category ontology?\",\"answer\":\"The ontology is built on two distinctions: between the particular and the universal, and between the substantial and the non-substantial.\"},{\"question\":\"How does the framework characterize the four ontological categories?\",\"answer\":\"It yields substantial particulars, non-substantial particulars (tropes/modes), substantial universals (substantial kinds), and non-substantial universals (properties and relations as universals).\"},{\"question\":\"Why does the author argue for using four categories rather than a more parsimonious system?\",\"answer\":\"The author appeals to explanatory power: although ontological economy often favors fewer categories, the four-category ontology provides unrivalled explanatory capability, supporting the need for the extra 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