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Graphene-based coatings reduce diatom adhesion more effectively than pure epoxy, with efficacy rising with filler concentration. Surface energy analysis, ROS measurements, and TEM/SEM show high surface energy limits fouling release; low oxidative stress shifts the mechanism toward contact-mediated membrane disruption and phospholipid damage, with higher mortality on graphene than graphene oxide. Durable, nontoxic activity is indicated, while dead foulant removal remains a challenge.",{"@graph":14,"@context":72},[15,34,55],{"@type":16,"itemListElement":17},"BreadcrumbList",[18,23,27,31],{"item":19,"name":20,"@type":21,"position":22},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",1,{"item":24,"name":25,"@type":21,"position":26},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":28,"name":29,"@type":21,"position":30},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/","Research & Report",3,{"item":32,"name":10,"@type":21,"position":33},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/the-antifouling-mechanism-and-efficacy-of-graphene-nanomaterials-in-composite-coatings-against-marine-diatoms/444018/",4,{"url":32,"name":10,"@type":35,"image":36,"author":41,"headline":10,"publisher":44,"fileFormat":47,"inLanguage":8,"description":12,"dateModified":48,"datePublished":49,"encodingFormat":47,"isAccessibleForFree":50,"interactionStatistic":51},"DigitalDocument",{"url":37,"@type":38,"width":39,"height":40},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/the-antifouling-mechanism-and-efficacy-of-graphene-nanomaterials-in-composite-coatings-against-marine-diatoms/444018.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":42,"@type":43},"วิน","Person",{"url":19,"name":45,"@type":46},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-01","2026-09-29",true,{"@type":52,"interactionType":53,"userInteractionCount":30},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":54},"ViewAction",{"@type":56,"mainEntity":57},"FAQPage",[58,64,68],{"name":59,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":61},"Why are toxic antifouling biocides being restricted in marine settings?","Question",{"text":62,"@type":63},"They can be highly toxic to non-target species. As a result, regulatory bans and restrictions have intensified, creating demand for environmentally friendly alternatives.","Answer",{"name":65,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":66},"How did graphene-based epoxy composites perform against marine diatoms compared with pure epoxy?",{"text":67,"@type":63},"Both graphene-based coatings significantly outperformed pure epoxy in reducing diatom adhesion in flow-through systems. Efficacy increased as filler concentration increased, for both monocultures and mixed algal cultures.",{"name":69,"@type":60,"acceptedAnswer":70},"What mechanism was identified as the primary cause of cell death on graphene-containing surfaces?",{"text":71,"@type":63},"Microscopy indicated membrane disruption as the main cause, primarily through contact-mediated phospholipid damage. 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Kelly, * Andreas Erbe, Ingrid G. Hallsteinsen, and Hilde L. Lein  \n Cite This: ACS Omega 2025, 10, 59478−59488  \nRead Online  \n\n|  |  |  |  |  |  |\n| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |\n| ACCESS   | Metrics & More |  |  Article Recommendations |  | *sı Supporting Information |\n\nABSTRACT: The urgent need for sustainable antifouling solutions in marine environments has intensified the search for alternatives to toxic biocides. One promising approach involves embedding graphene nanomaterials into polymer composites. While graphene’s antifouling properties have been extensively studied in solution, its mechanisms within solid composites remain unclear􀀁particularly whether its effects are primarily chemical, such as oxidative stress, or physical, such as mechanical disruption. This study investigates the antifouling mechanisms of native, unmodified graphene and graphene oxide embedded in epoxy composite coatings targeting marine diatoms under laboratory conditions. Both graphenebased coatings significantly outperformed pure epoxy in reducing diatom adhesion in flow-through systems, using both monocultures and mixed algal cultures, with efficacy increasing alongside filler concentration. A comprehensive suite of characterizations􀀁including surface energy analysis, reactive oxygen species  \n(ROS) measurements, and scanning and transmission electron microscopy􀀁was employed to elucidate the mode of action. Unlike commercial antifouling coatings, the high surface energy of these composites rules out fouling release as the dominant mechanism. ROS measurements indicated minimal oxidative stress, suggesting that chemical toxicity is not the primary driver. Microscopy revealed membrane disruption as the main cause of cell death, primarily through contact-mediated phospholipid damage. Furthermore, cellular assays showed higher cell mortality on graphene-containing surfaces compared with those with graphene oxide, reinforcing the role of mechanical disruption. Overall, these findings demonstrate that graphene nanomaterials confer antifouling activity primarily through direct contact interactions, highlighting their potential for durable, nontoxic marine coatings. However, to fully leverage the biocidal properties of graphene and graphene oxide, efficient removal of dead foulants remains a critical challenge.  \n■ INTRODUCTION  \nMarine organisms can accumulate on surfaces, leading to a phenomenon known as biofouling. 1,2 This accumulation negatively affects the hydrodynamic volume and friction of marine vessels, resulting in increased drag, reduced speed, and higher fuel consumption,3,4 and it can cause structural issues in marine aquaculture.5 To combat this issue, applying antibiofilm coatings to these surfaces is a common solution. Selfpolishing coatings containing biocides, for instance, tributyltin (TBT) or copper, are effective in preventing fouling.6−8 However, due to their significant toxicity to nontarget species, these substances have been banned or increasingly restricted.9−14  \nThese restrictions highlight the need for environmentally friendly alternatives in the field of antifouling coatings, and in response, significant advancements have been made in  \ndeveloping new solutions. Among them are coatingson biomimetic microstructures, 15−17 fouling release ings,18−20 self-assembled monolayers,21,22 zwitterionic  \nbased coatcoat-  \nings,23,24 and slippery liquid-infused porous structures,25 though these coatings are all limited in several ways, such as complexity in design, durability, specificity to certain fouling  \nspecies only, and scalability issues. There have been solutions based on polymer−nanoparticle composites suggested, as well. Less harmful biocides, such as silver and some m","cbCaitG1syBzhL4v","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaitG1syBzhL4v","pdf",8270409,11,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n## Biofouling problem and conventional biocides\n## Environment-friendly antifouling alternatives\n## Graphene nanomaterials for antibiofilm coatings\n## Graphene properties and prior work","[{\"question\":\"Why are toxic antifouling biocides being restricted in marine settings?\",\"answer\":\"They can be highly toxic to non-target species. As a result, regulatory bans and restrictions have intensified, creating demand for environmentally friendly alternatives.\"},{\"question\":\"How did graphene-based epoxy composites perform against marine diatoms compared with pure epoxy?\",\"answer\":\"Both graphene-based coatings significantly outperformed pure epoxy in reducing diatom adhesion in flow-through systems. Efficacy increased as filler concentration increased, for both monocultures and mixed algal cultures.\"},{\"question\":\"What mechanism was identified as the primary cause of cell death on graphene-containing surfaces?\",\"answer\":\"Microscopy indicated membrane disruption as the main cause, primarily through contact-mediated phospholipid damage. ROS measurements showed minimal oxidative stress, so chemical toxicity was not the primary driver.\"}]","The Antifouling Mechanism and Efficacy of Graphene Nanomaterials in Composite Coatings against Marine Diatoms | PDF",1790706478,28]