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Population studies show a steady decline in men’s testosterone levels, paralleling increasing infertility and metabolic disorders. This pattern may arise from environmental endocrine disruptors, lower physical activity, insufficient sleep, and socioeconomic stress. The study measured salivary testosterone in young adult males from Erie, Pennsylvania, linking it to lifestyle, activity, sleep duration, body weight, and economic status. Results emphasize interacting behavioral, biological, and environmental influences on endocrine function, informing prevention and lifestyle-based clinical care.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/testosterone-and-the-risk-factors-implicated-in-its-steady-decline/578131/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/testosterone-and-the-risk-factors-implicated-in-its-steady-decline/578131.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Eliana","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-19","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":14},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why is testosterone important beyond reproductive function?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"Testosterone supports bone and muscle integrity, cardiovascular health, cognition, and mood regulation, in addition to its reproductive roles.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What factors are proposed to contribute to the steady decline in testosterone levels?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The document highlights environmental endocrine disruptors, reduced physical activity, inadequate sleep, and socioeconomic stress, with uncertainty about relative contributions.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"Which variables does the study examine in relation to salivary testosterone?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"The study assesses associations with weight, height, sleep, diet quality, financial status, and parental education, using salivary testosterone measurements.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},578131,1792446883,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":14,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},4398048949847,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/400002536579ef2da7f?_k=1778318612642679267","EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH  \nEDUCATOR  \nJournal of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society  \nVolume 30, Issue 1 | April, 2026  \n[https://doi.org/10.21692/haps.2026.007](https://doi.org/10.21692/haps.2026.007)  \nTestosterone and the Risk Factors Implicated in its Steady Decline  \nBrennan A. Schmitt and Mary C. Vagula, PhD  \nDepartment of Biology, Gannon University, Erie, PA, USA [Corresponding Author:](Corresponding Author: vagula001@gannon.edu)[ ](Corresponding Author: vagula001@gannon.edu)[vagula001@gannon.edu](Corresponding Author: vagula001@gannon.edu)  \nAbstract  \nTestosterone is a vital hormone for development, metabolism, and overall health in both males and females. Beyond reproductive function, testosterone contributes to bone and muscle integrity, cardiovascular health, cognition, and mood regulation. Over recent decades, population-based studies have documented a steady decline in testosterone levels in men, coinciding with rising infertility and metabolic disorders. This trend likely reflects the combined influence of environmental endocrine disruptors, reduced physical activity, inadequate sleep, and socioeconomic stress. This study measured salivary testosterone levels in young adult males from Erie, Pennsylvania, and examined its associations with lifestyle, activity, sleep duration, body weight, and economic status. The results highlight how behavioral, biological, and environmental factors interact to influence endocrine function. From teaching perspective, these findings can serve as a case study for health science students learning about the endocrine system, illustrating how lifestyle and socioeconomic factors contribute to hormonal variation. A deeper understanding of these interactions may help future healthcare professionals design prevention strategies and incorporate lifestyle modification into clinical care of patients with low testosterone. [https://doi.org/10.21692/haps.2026.007](https://doi.org/10.21692/haps.2026.007)  \nKey words: salivary testosterone, ELISA, lifestyle, socioeconomic factors, hormonal regulation  \nIntroduction  \nTestosterone is a vital regulatory hormone that influences a wide range of physiological processes in human males and females. It plays key roles in development, reproduction, maintenance of muscle and bone mass, cardiovascular health, cognition, and sexual health (Rojas-Zambrano et al., 2025). Additionally, testosterone has been associated with psychological and behavioral regulation, influencing personality traits and emotional stability (Dabbs & Morris, 1990). Over recent decades, multiple studies have reported a significant decline in testosterone levels among men (Nyante et al., 2012; Perheentupa et al., 2013). Travisonet al. (2007) reported a generational decrease in serum testosterone that cannot be explained by aging alone, suggesting contributions from environmental, lifestyle, and psychological factors. A recent report indicated that even younger men also exhibit lower testosterone levels than previous generations (Lokeshwar et al., 2021). This downward trend raises concerns for public health, as low testosterone (hypogonadism) has been linked to infertility, obesity, cardiovascular disease, muscle atrophy, and cognitive decline (Cohen et al., 2020; Fui et al., 2014) .  \nAlthough multiple studies have identified a decline in serum testosterone levels among men over the past few decades, the underlying causes remain uncertain (Feldman et al., 2002). Factors such as obesity, sedentary lifestyles, sleep deprivation, poor diet, and exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals have been associated with lower testosterone levels, though their relative contributions are not well defined (Fui et al., 2014). Additionally, socioeconomic conditions, including financial stress, limited access to nutritious food, and reduced opportunities for recreation, may interact with lifestyle habits to influence endocrine function. Addressing these relationships is critical for clarifying how b","cbCaiio1Z2yA9YXP","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiio1Z2yA9YXP","pdf",273161,13,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n# Study Rationale and Objectives\n# Hypotheses and Expected Associations","[{\"question\":\"Why is testosterone important beyond reproductive function?\",\"answer\":\"Testosterone supports bone and muscle integrity, cardiovascular health, cognition, and mood regulation, in addition to its reproductive roles.\"},{\"question\":\"What factors are proposed to contribute to the steady decline in testosterone levels?\",\"answer\":\"The document highlights environmental endocrine disruptors, reduced physical activity, inadequate sleep, and socioeconomic stress, with uncertainty about relative contributions.\"},{\"question\":\"Which variables does the study examine in relation to salivary testosterone?\",\"answer\":\"The study assesses associations with weight, height, sleep, diet quality, financial status, and parental education, using salivary testosterone measurements.\"}]","Testosterone and the Risk Factors Implicated in its Steady Decline | PDF",1792033136,33]