[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":3,"doc-seo-588198-105":59,"doc-detail-588198-en":130},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",[7,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48,51,55],{"id":8,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":10,"show_sort_weight":11,"slug":12},1,"Document","Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":14,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":15,"show_sort_weight":16,"slug":17},2,"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":19,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":20,"show_sort_weight":21,"slug":22},4,"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":24,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":25,"show_sort_weight":26,"slug":27},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":29,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":30,"show_sort_weight":31,"slug":32},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":34,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":35,"show_sort_weight":36,"slug":37},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":39,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":40,"show_sort_weight":41,"slug":42},8,"Research & Report",30,"research-report",{"id":44,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":45,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":47},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":46,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":49,"show_sort_weight":46,"slug":50},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":52,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":53,"show_sort_weight":52,"slug":54},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":56,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":9,"category_name":57,"show_sort_weight":24,"slug":58},19,"General","general",{"code":4,"msg":60,"data":61},"ok",{"site_id":62,"language":63,"slug":64,"title":65,"keywords":66,"description":67,"schema_data":68,"social_meta":123,"head_meta":125,"extra_data":127,"updated_unix":129},105,"en","testing-the-tests-for-racism","Testing the Tests for Racism","","Wilfred Reilly examines how audit studies on American racism can yield seemingly conflicting conclusions: some findings suggest declining racism over time, while others claim tests reveal persistent bias against Black people and other racial minorities. The article explores how both sets of results can co-exist, reviewing evidence on changing attitudes, marriage and voting patterns, and performance gaps between groups. It also discusses whether adjusting for non-racial variables removes observed disparities in earnings and police encounters.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/testing-the-tests-for-racism/588198/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/testing-the-tests-for-racism/588198.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Aditya","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-01","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":44},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why do audit studies produce conflicting conclusions about modern racism?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"Reilly explains that results can be reconciled when considering differences in study design and the role of context, measures, and comparison logic across many well-executed studies.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What evidence is used to support the idea that racism has declined in the United States?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The article cites changes in attitudes such as rising approval of interracial marriage and survey responses indicating fewer whites oppose interracial marriage-related scenarios.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How do adjustments for non-racial variables affect observed group disparities?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Reilly describes research showing that many income or achievement gaps attributed to racism shrink or disappear after controlling for relevant non-racial characteristics.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},588198,1792165359,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":44,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},962085564549,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_085a072bc5b1113ac321206ff7593b45","Acad. Quest . (2021) 34.3 DOI 10. 51845/34 .3.4  \nTesting the Tests for Racism  \nWilfred Reilly  \nAgainst the claim of decreased American racism over the past twenty years have come the audit studies. Throughout much of the modern era, a large number of empirically-minded social scientists have pointed out that racism seems by any objective standard to be declining.1 However, other scholars argue that anonymous tests show considerable modern-era bias against blacks and other racial minorities.2 How can both of these results co-exist, across dozens of well-designed studies? A review of the audit studies might help.  \nThe fact that racism has declined in the United States in the modern era, following the 1964 passage of the Civil Rights Act, would seem objectively obvious to most people. Eric Kaufmann points out that approval of black/white interracial marriage—often presented in the context of a close relative marrying a black person—rose from 4 percent among whites in 1958 to 84 percent in 2013.3 In 2017, “fewer than 10 percent of whites” surveyed by Pew agreed with a somewhat differently worded question asking whether inter-racial marriage was “a bad thing.” No doubt as a direct consequence of such changing attitudes, the percentage of newlyweds in multi-race marriages rose from 3 percent in the mid-1960s to 17 percent today.4 Most other anonymous polls focused on key  \n1 Paul Sniderman, Edward Carmines, Reaching Beyond Race (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Press, 1997; Thomas Sowell, Black Rednecks and White Liberals (New York: Encounter Books, 2005); Jonathan Klick, Sally Satel, The Health Disparities Myth: Diagnosing the Treatment Gap, (Washington, D.C: The AEI Press, 2006); Wilfred Reilly, Taboo: Ten Facts You Can’t Talk About (Washington, D.C: Regnery Press, 2020); Eric Kaufmann, The Social Construction of Racism in the United States, Occasional Reports of the Manhattan Institute, April 2021; Michael Light,“The Declining Significance of Race in Criminal Sentencing: Evidence from U.S. Federal Courts,” Social Forces (2021): 1-32.  \n2 Devah Pager,“The Mark of a Criminal Record,” American Journal of Sociology 108 (2003): 937-75; Marianne Bertrand, Sendhil Mullainathan,“Are Emily and Greg More Employable than Lakisha and Jamal?,”American Economic Review 94 (2004): 991-1013; Michael Gaddis,“How Black Are Lakisha and Jamal? Racial Perceptions from Names Used in Correspondence Audit Studies,” Sociological Science 4 (2017): 469-489.  \n3 Kaufmann, 9.  \n4 Gretchen Livingston, Anna Brown,“Trends and Patterns in Intermarriage,” Intermarriage in the U.S. 50 Years After Loving V. Virginia, Pew Research, May 18, 2017.  \nWilfred Reilly is an Associate Professor of Political Science at Kentucky State University, a historically black college in Frankfort, Kentucky; [Wilfred. Reilly@kysu.edu. Professor Reilly holds a Ph. D. in](Wilfred. Reilly@kysu.edu. Professor Reilly holds a Ph. D. in) political science from Southern Illinois University, a law degree from the University of Illinois, and is the author of Hate Crime Hoax: How the Left is Selling a Fake Race War (Regnery, 2019) . He last appeared in AQ with“Are Hate Crime Hoaxers Above the Law?” in the Winter 2019 issue.  \nissues of race find results similar to those dealing with marriage, with Gallup finding in 2015 that only 8 percent of whites would not vote for a qualified black same-party candidate for President—as vs. 7 percent who would not vote fora Catholic, 9 percent who would not vote for a Hispanic or Jew, and 19 percent who would not vote for a Mormon.5  \nAn especially interesting sub-category of research on the prevalence and effects of modern racism has focused on examining what happens to the performance gaps between groups (in incomes, SAT scores, etc.) that are often attributed to racism—or to genetic factors by the fringe right—when adjustments are made for non-racial characteristics which vary between groups. The economist June O’Neill (1990; 2005), for example, has po","cbCaitn4ynWDsdjw","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaitn4ynWDsdjw","pdf",307672,11,"English","# Introduction\n# Declining racism and changing social attitudes\n## Interracial marriage and public opinion\n# Performance gaps and adjusted outcomes\n## Earnings differences after controls\n## Police encounter disparities after controls\n# Controversies and study availability","[{\"question\":\"Why do audit studies produce conflicting conclusions about modern racism?\",\"answer\":\"Reilly explains that results can be reconciled when considering differences in study design and the role of context, measures, and comparison logic across many well-executed studies.\"},{\"question\":\"What evidence is used to support the idea that racism has declined in the United States?\",\"answer\":\"The article cites changes in attitudes such as rising approval of interracial marriage and survey responses indicating fewer whites oppose interracial marriage-related scenarios.\"},{\"question\":\"How do adjustments for non-racial variables affect observed group disparities?\",\"answer\":\"Reilly describes research showing that many income or achievement gaps attributed to racism shrink or disappear after controlling for relevant non-racial characteristics.\"}]","Testing the Tests for Racism | PDF",1792064735,28]