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SAT Retaking and College Enrollment Gaps","","Only half of SAT test-takers retake the exam, with still lower retake rates among low-income and underrepresented minority (URM) students. Using discontinuities in retake probabilities at multiples of 100, driven by left-digit bias, the study estimates the causal effects of retaking. Retaking improves SAT performance and raises four-year college enrollment, especially for low-income and URM students. Reducing retake-rate disparities could close up to 10% of the income-based gap and up to 7% of the race-based gap in four-year enrollment.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/take-two-sat-retaking-and-college-enrollment-gaps/266084/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/take-two-sat-retaking-and-college-enrollment-gaps/266084.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Cipher","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-10","2026-09-14",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":46},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What does the paper say about SAT retake rates?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"Only about half of SAT takers retake the exam. Retake rates are even lower for low-income and underrepresented minority students.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"How does the paper estimate the causal effect of retaking?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"It exploits discontinuous jumps in retake probabilities at multiples of 100 caused by left-digit bias, using these discontinuities to estimate causal effects.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What outcomes does retaking affect according to the paper?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Retaking substantially improves SAT scores and increases four-year college enrollment rates, with particularly strong effects for low-income and URM students.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},266084,1789403588,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":46,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":129,"read_time":144,"preview_page_count":4},687208528416,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_9964176cb1d06d4a9deccf72a44ae3dc","NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES  \nTAKE TWO! SAT RETAKING AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENT GAPS  \nJoshua Goodman  \nOded Gurantz  \nJonathan Smith  \nWorking Paper 24945  \n[http://www.nber.org/papers/w24945](http://www.nber.org/papers/w24945)  \nNATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH  \n1050 Massachusetts Avenue  \nCambridge, MA 02138  \nAugust 2018, Revised April 2019  \nThese views do not reflect those of the College Board or the National Bureau of Economic Research. We are grateful for helpful feedback from John Friedman and three anonymous referees, as well as seminar participants at Brandeis, Columbia, Duke, the Federal Reserve, Harvard, Montana State University, Purdue, University of Connecticut, University of Maryland, University of Memphis, and West Point. We also thank the College Board for sharing data and Melanie Rucinski for providing excellent research assistance.  \nNBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer-reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications.  \n© 2018 by Joshua Goodman, Oded Gurantz, and Jonathan Smith. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source.  \nTake Two! SAT Retaking and College Enrollment Gaps Joshua Goodman, Oded Gurantz, and Jonathan Smith  \nNBER Working Paper No. 24945 August 2018, Revised April 2019 JEL No. I2,I20,I23,I24,J24  \nABSTRACT  \nOnly half of SAT-takers retake the exam, with even lower retake rates among low income and underrepresented minority (URM) students. We exploit discontinuous jumps in retake probabilities at multiples of 100, driven by left-digit bias, to estimate retaking’s causal effects. Retaking substantially improves SAT scores and increases four-year college enrollment rates, particularly for low income and URM students. Eliminating disparities in retake rates could close up to 10 percent of the income-based gap and up to seven percent of the race-based gap in fouryear college enrollment rates of high school graduates.  \nJoshua Goodman  \nHarvard Kennedy School  \n79 JFK Street  \nCambridge, MA 02138 and NBER [joshua_goodman@hks.harvard.edu](joshua_goodman@hks.harvard.edu)  \nOded Gurantz  \nTruman School of Public Affairs University of Missouri  \n216A Middlebush Hall Columbia, MO 65203 [gurantzo@missouri.edu](gurantzo@missouri.edu)  \nJonathan Smith  \nAndrew Young School of Policy Studies P.O. Box 3992  \nAtlanta, GA 30302-3992  \n[jsmith500@gsu.edu](jsmith500@gsu.edu)  \nU.S. college enrollment varies substantially by income and race. In 2016, 83 percent of students from high-income families enrolled in college immediately after graduating from high school, while only 67 percent of students from low-income families did so (McFarland and Hussar, 2018) . Over 70 percent of White high school graduates immediately enroll in college, compared to 56 percent of Black high school graduates. When low income and underrepresented minority (URM) students enroll in college, they are disproportionately likely to do so at colleges with relatively low graduation rates and low expected earnings, such as two-year community colleges.1 One partial explanation of such disparities comes from informational and procedural complexities in the transition to college, which disproportionately impact students who lack the resources or guidance to navigate college processes as effectively as their more advantaged peers (Page and Scott-Clayton, 2016) .  \nCollege entrance exams such as the SAT and ACT are one source of complexity. Although much has been written about the decision to take a college entrance exam for the first time (the extensive margin), we know very little about students' decisions to retake such exams (the intensive margin) . Only 54 percent of SAT-takers retake the SAT at least once, implying that nearly half of students never retake.2 Those who do not reta","cbCaiaawhXI4gbWk","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiaawhXI4gbWk","pdf",512065,61,"English","# Introduction\n## Background on college enrollment disparities\n## SAT/ACT and the intensive margin of retaking\n# Study approach and main effects\n## Retaking rates by demographic groups\n## Causal identification using discontinuities","[{\"question\":\"What does the paper say about SAT retake rates?\",\"answer\":\"Only about half of SAT takers retake the exam. Retake rates are even lower for low-income and underrepresented minority students.\"},{\"question\":\"How does the paper estimate the causal effect of retaking?\",\"answer\":\"It exploits discontinuous jumps in retake probabilities at multiples of 100 caused by left-digit bias, using these discontinuities to estimate causal effects.\"},{\"question\":\"What outcomes does retaking affect according to the paper?\",\"answer\":\"Retaking substantially improves SAT scores and increases four-year college enrollment rates, with particularly strong effects for low-income and URM students.\"}]","Take Two! SAT Retaking and College Enrollment Gaps | PDF",154]