[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-124489-en":3,"doc-seo-124489-105":30,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":91},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":4,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":20,"is_downloadable":20,"audit_status":20,"page_count":21,"language":22,"language_code":23,"site_id":24,"html_lang":23,"table_of_contents":25,"faqs":26,"seo_title":27,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":28,"read_time":29},124489,13056703020460,"Valentina","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/be000253dac470eee5d?_k=1778207105932848923",8,"Research & Report","Strength characterisation of fly ash blended 3D printed concrete enhanced with explainable machine learning","This study investigates the performance of 3D printed concrete incorporating fly ash as a partial cement replacement and develops a machine learning model to predict its mechanical properties. A total of 28 mixtures were prepared with varying fly ash contents (5–15 %), water-to-binder ratios, and superplasticiser dosages. Seven mixes met printability requirements in terms of flowability, extrudability, and buildability. Compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and sorptivity were measured, and microstructural evidence supported pore refinement and matrix densification.","Case Studies in Construction Materials 24 (2026) e05682  \nContents lists available at ScienceDirect  \nCase Studies in Construction Materials  \njournal [homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm](homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm)  \n| Strength characterisation of fly ash blended 3D printed concrete enhanced with explainable machine learning\u003Cbr>Imtiaz Iqbal a, Waleed Bin Inqiada, Tala Kasima,* , Svetlana Besklubova b,*, Melak Mohammad Adila, Mujib Rahman a\u003Cbr>a Department of Civil Engineering, Aston University, Birmingham B4 7ET, United Kingdom\u003Cbr>b Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, 7a JJ Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB 0FA, UK |  |  |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| A R T I C L E I N F O |  | A B S T R A C T |\n| Keywords:\u003Cbr>3D printed concrete Fly ash\u003Cbr>Sorptivity Compressive strength Flexural strength Machine learning |  | This study investigates the performance of 3D printed concrete incorporating fly ash as a partial cement replacement and develops a machine learning model to predict its mechanical properties. A total of 28 mixtures were prepared with varying fly ash contents (5–15 %), water-to-binder ratios, and superplasticiser dosages. Of these, seven mixes met the requirements for printability in terms of flowability, extrudability, and buildability. Experimental tests were conducted to evaluate compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and sorptivity. Results showed that mixes with 5 % and 7.5 % fly ash achieved improved strength and durability, whereas higher fly ash levels reduced early-age performance due to clinker dilution and slower pozzolanic activity. Microstructural analyses confirmed the presence of C–S–H, portlandite, and ettringite, with fly ash contributing to pore refinement and matrix densification. To enhance predictive capability, a TPE-optimised Extreme Gradient Boosting (TPE-XGB) model was developed using data obtained from laboratory testing. The model achieved excellent accuracy (R² > 0.997) in predicting compressive and flexural strength. A graphical user interface integrating SHAP visualisation was created to provide transparent predictions, supporting practical implementation. The findings highlight the potential of fly ash to improve the sustainability of 3D printed concrete at optimised dosages and demonstrate the value of interpretable machine learning tools in mix design optimisation. |\n\n1. Introduction  \nTraditional concrete production typically involves manual mixing, casting, labour, and formworks, which require considerable resources and generate a significant amount of waste. This process is time-consuming and expensive, with labour costs accounting for 60–70 % of the total expenditure [1]. Othuman Mydin et al. [2] highlighted that these methods lead to lower productivity due to their labour-intensive nature, often resulting in low quality construction. Manual labour also introduces challenges such as inefficiency from human errors, safety concerns, and delays, all of which negatively affect productivity [3,4]. To overcome these limitations and encourage sustainability in the construction industry, innovative solutions are needed. Among these, three-dimensional printed concrete (3DPC) has emerged as a game changing technology, providing new ways to address the constraints of traditional  \n* Corresponding authors.  \nE-mail addresses: [220425973@aston.ac.uk](220425973@aston.ac.uk) (I. Iqbal), [w.bininqiad@aston.ac.uk](w.bininqiad@aston.ac.uk) (W. Bin Inqiad), [t.kasim@aston.ac.uk](t.kasim@aston.ac.uk) (T. Kasim), sb2837@cam.  \n[ac.uk](ac.uk) (S. Besklubova), [210115066@aston.ac.uk](210115066@aston.ac.uk) (M.M. Adil), [m.rahman19@aston.ac.uk](m.rahman19@aston.ac.uk) (M. Rahman).  \n[https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e05682](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2025.e05682)  \nReceived 25 September 2025; Received in revised form 7 November 2025; Accepted 9 December 2025 Available online 11 December 2025  \n2214-5095/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an","cbCaigfDd5o1Umf9","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaigfDd5o1Umf9","pdf",12550907,1,21,"English","en",105,"# Introduction\n## Challenges of traditional concrete production\n## Promise of 3D printed concrete\n## Cement substitution and role of fly ash","[{\"question\":\"What does the study aim to achieve with fly ash blended 3D printed concrete?\",\"answer\":\"It evaluates the performance of 3D printed concrete with fly ash as partial cement replacement and builds a machine learning model to predict mechanical properties.\"},{\"question\":\"How were the mixtures designed and screened for printability?\",\"answer\":\"Twenty-eight mixtures varied fly ash content (5–15%), water-to-binder ratio, and superplasticiser dosage. Seven mixes were selected because they met printability requirements such as flowability, extrudability, and buildability.\"},{\"question\":\"What experimental properties were measured in the work?\",\"answer\":\"Compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and sorptivity were tested to quantify both mechanical and durability-related performance.\"}]","Strength characterisation of fly ash blended 3D printed concrete enhanced with explainable machine learning | PDF",1785822734,53,{"code":4,"msg":31,"data":32},"ok",{"site_id":24,"language":23,"slug":33,"title":13,"keywords":34,"description":14,"schema_data":35,"social_meta":86,"head_meta":88,"extra_data":90,"updated_unix":28},"strength-characterisation-of-fly-ash-blended-3d-printed-concrete-enhanced-with-explainable-machine-learning","",{"@graph":36,"@context":85},[37,54,68],{"@type":38,"itemListElement":39},"BreadcrumbList",[40,44,48,51],{"item":41,"name":42,"@type":43,"position":20},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":45,"name":46,"@type":43,"position":47},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":49,"name":12,"@type":43,"position":50},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":52,"name":13,"@type":43,"position":53},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/strength-characterisation-of-fly-ash-blended-3d-printed-concrete-enhanced-with-explainable-machine-learning/124489/",4,{"url":52,"name":13,"@type":55,"author":56,"headline":13,"publisher":58,"fileFormat":61,"inLanguage":23,"description":14,"dateModified":62,"datePublished":62,"encodingFormat":61,"isAccessibleForFree":63,"interactionStatistic":64},"DigitalDocument",{"name":9,"@type":57},"Person",{"url":41,"name":59,"@type":60},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-08-04",true,{"@type":65,"interactionType":66,"userInteractionCount":4},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":67},"ViewAction",{"@type":69,"mainEntity":70},"FAQPage",[71,77,81],{"name":72,"@type":73,"acceptedAnswer":74},"What does the study aim to achieve with fly ash blended 3D printed concrete?","Question",{"text":75,"@type":76},"It evaluates the performance of 3D printed concrete with fly ash as partial cement replacement and builds a machine learning model to predict mechanical properties.","Answer",{"name":78,"@type":73,"acceptedAnswer":79},"How were the mixtures designed and screened for printability?",{"text":80,"@type":76},"Twenty-eight mixtures varied fly ash content (5–15%), water-to-binder ratio, and superplasticiser dosage. Seven mixes were selected because they met printability requirements such as flowability, extrudability, and buildability.",{"name":82,"@type":73,"acceptedAnswer":83},"What experimental properties were measured in the work?",{"text":84,"@type":76},"Compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption, and sorptivity were tested to quantify both mechanical and durability-related performance.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":52,"og:type":87,"og:title":13,"og:site_name":59,"og:description":14},"article",{"robots":89,"canonical":52},"index,follow",{"doc_id":7,"site_id":24},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":92},[93,97,101,105,110,115,120,123,128,131,135],{"id":20,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":94,"show_sort_weight":95,"slug":96},"Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":47,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":98,"show_sort_weight":99,"slug":100},"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":53,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":102,"show_sort_weight":103,"slug":104},"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":106,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":107,"show_sort_weight":108,"slug":109},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":111,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":112,"show_sort_weight":113,"slug":114},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":116,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":117,"show_sort_weight":118,"slug":119},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":11,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":12,"show_sort_weight":121,"slug":122},30,"research-report",{"id":124,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":125,"show_sort_weight":126,"slug":127},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":126,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":129,"show_sort_weight":126,"slug":130},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":132,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":133,"show_sort_weight":132,"slug":134},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":136,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":137,"show_sort_weight":106,"slug":138},19,"General","general"]