[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-83675-en":3,"doc-seo-83675-105":30,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":91},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":20,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":21,"is_downloadable":21,"audit_status":21,"page_count":22,"language":23,"language_code":24,"site_id":25,"html_lang":24,"table_of_contents":26,"faqs":27,"seo_title":13,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":28,"read_time":29},83675,4810365810221,"Aurora","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_155a257f0dc6eb9ab79c44ca47cae57d",8,"Research & Report","SpendableStore UTXO-Based Decentralized Data Store","SpendableStore proposes a hybrid on/off-chain database running over permissionless UTXO-based blockchains to address limitations of permissioned decentralization and scalability in permissionless account-based systems. It embeds atomic data units into individual UTXOs to create Spendable Data Objects that support standard CRUD operations, while blockchain peers safeguard integrity, immutability, and ownership against administrator overreach. The work adds transaction support and introduces Future Now Snapshot Isolation for transactional correctness, validated via mainnet experiments showing up to 16x throughput gains.","SpendableStore: A UTXO-based Decentralized Data Store  \nYinan Zhou  \nUniversity of California, Irvine [yinanz17@uci.edu](yinanz17@uci.edu)  \nFaisal Nawab  \nUniversity of California, Irvine [nawabf@uci.edu](nawabf@uci.edu)  \narXiv :2607 .02677v 1 [ cs .DB] 2 Jul 2026  \nAbstract—The literature on blockchain-based databases is divided into permissioned blockchains and permissionless accountbased blockchains. However, the former is not fully decentralized, and the latter suffers from challenges in scalability and practicality. We propose SpendableStore, a hybrid on/off-chain database that operates on top of permissionless UTXO-based blockchains as a novel approach to the problem of data decentralization. Our design integrates atomic data units into individual UTXOsto create a new blockchain concept called Spendable Data Objects that perform traditional CRUD operations. The integrity, immutability, and ownership of these Spendable Data Objects are safeguarded directly by the blockchain peer nodes, thus constraining the power of database administrators to achieve true data decentralization. We further support database transactions and propose an isolation mechanism called Future Now Snapshot Isolation to reason about transactional correctness in SpendableStore. We performed experiments on a major blockchain’s Mainnet and observed up to 16x better throughput compared toa state-of-the-art blockchain-based database.  \nIndex Terms—UTXO, Decentralized Database, Snapshot Isolation  \nI. INTRODUCTION  \nThe creation and implementation of the Bitcoin [1] blockchain protocol became a breakthrough in decentralized systems. Its use of the Proof-of-Work mechanism was a novel solution to the Byzantine Generals Problem [2] . It offers a transparent, immutable, decentralized ledger in a fully open network. Bitcoin demonstrates a new approach to achieving desirable system properties such as decentralization, tamper resistance, irrefutability, and anonymity [3] .  \nBlockchain-related databases are one line of research with various approaches (details in Section VII) . Many works mainly aim to utilize the verifiability property of the blockchain rather than its decentralization property. Therefore, they are built on less decentralized options like permissioned, federated blockchains, blockchains that are sharded [4],[5], sidechains [6], or storing data in centralized off-chain nodes [7] . The decentralization aspect of these systems is often traded off for performance gain.  \nSystems that are designed to operate on decentralized blockchain networks mainly use Ethereum Smart Contracts [8], [9] . Ethereum follows an account-based [10], [11] design where each contract account is a stateful software program that sequentially executes all update requests. On the  \nThis research is partly supported by the NSF under grant SaTC-2245372 .  \nother hand, Bitcoin has been used mainly for decentralized monetary transactions and value stores [12]–[14] . However, we found that the Bitcoin protocol can be used to implement a data store with CRUD operations. Its UTxO model offers better flexibility in database transaction formulationsand better concurrent execution optimizations. This opens up new potential in system design that benefits from the decentralization of the blockchain without compromising too much on the performance.  \nTherefore, this work proposes a new UTxO-based approach to the combination of blockchain and database that takes both verifiability and decentralization into account. We aim to achieve decentralization in these aspects: (1) Data Ownership: The data owner solely relies on permissionless blockchains for ownership protection. (2) Data Access: Data operations authorized by the data owner can be directly processed by permissionless blockchains and never eclipsed by the database administrator. (3) Data Verification: Any data manipulationscan be verified with proofs coming directly from the permissionless blockchain. (4) Data Provenance: The data h","cbCaib198QnO6PZh","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaib198QnO6PZh","pdf",1157740,3,1,14,"English","en",105,"# Introduction\n# Proposed System: SpendableStore\n## Spendable Data Objects and UTXO integration\n## Transaction support and Future Now Snapshot Isolation\n## Experimental evaluation and results","[{\"question\":\"What problem does SpendableStore target in blockchain-based databases?\",\"answer\":\"SpendableStore targets the gap between insufficient decentralization in permissioned systems and the scalability/practicality challenges of permissionless account-based designs.\"},{\"question\":\"How does SpendableStore enable CRUD operations on decentralized blockchain infrastructure?\",\"answer\":\"It integrates atomic data units into individual UTXOs to form Spendable Data Objects, which perform traditional CRUD operations while blockchain peers enforce integrity, immutability, and ownership.\"},{\"question\":\"What mechanism does SpendableStore use to reason about transactional correctness?\",\"answer\":\"It introduces Future Now Snapshot Isolation, a blockchain-tailored variant of snapshot isolation, to support transactional correctness during 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problem does SpendableStore target in blockchain-based databases?","Question",{"text":75,"@type":76},"SpendableStore targets the gap between insufficient decentralization in permissioned systems and the scalability/practicality challenges of permissionless account-based designs.","Answer",{"name":78,"@type":73,"acceptedAnswer":79},"How does SpendableStore enable CRUD operations on decentralized blockchain infrastructure?",{"text":80,"@type":76},"It integrates atomic data units into individual UTXOs to form Spendable Data Objects, which perform traditional CRUD operations while blockchain peers enforce integrity, immutability, and ownership.",{"name":82,"@type":73,"acceptedAnswer":83},"What mechanism does SpendableStore use to reason about transactional correctness?",{"text":84,"@type":76},"It introduces Future Now Snapshot Isolation, a blockchain-tailored variant of snapshot isolation, to support transactional correctness during 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