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This narrative review synthesizes evidence on sex- and gender-associated differences across cancer epidemiology and mechanisms, and explains how these variations can affect pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of cancer therapies. For most non-reproductive cancers, incidence is higher in males, with gallbladder and thyroid cancers more common in women. Mortality is higher in men, while women form a larger survivor share.",{"@graph":69,"@context":123},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/sex-and-gender-differences-in-cancer-pathogenesis-and-pharmacology-narrative-review/372685/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/sex-and-gender-differences-in-cancer-pathogenesis-and-pharmacology-narrative-review/372685.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Jasmine","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-31","2026-09-23",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",12,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"How do sex and gender differ in the context of cancer?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"The paper distinguishes sex as biologically determined features involving chromosomes, reproductive organs, and hormones, while gender is a societal construct based on expected norms, behaviors, and roles.","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"What epidemiology patterns are reported for most cancers?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"For most cancer types unrelated to reproductive function, incidence is higher in males than in females, with gallbladder and thyroid cancers being exceptions where women have higher incidence.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"Why can cancer drug pharmacology differ between sexes?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"The review attributes differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics to variations in body composition, physiology, and receptor expression between sexes.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":125,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":127,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":129,"site_id":62},372685,1790510459,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":132},{"doc_id":129,"user_id":133,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":105,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":41},2336478487870,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_085a072bc5b1113ac321206ff7593b45","Clinical and Translational Oncology (2025) 27:3837–3848  \n[https://doi.org/10.1007/s12094-025-03894-1](https://doi.org/10.1007/s12094-025-03894-1)  \nSex and gender differences in cancer pathogenesis and pharmacology  \nBeatriz Bernardez1,2,3 · Oliver Higuera4 · Virginia Martinez‑Callejo5 · Ana Cardeña‑Gutiérrez6 · José Antonio Marcos Rodríguez7 · Ana Santaballa Bertrán8 · Margarita Majem9 ·  \nMaria‑Estela Moreno‑Martínez10,11  \nReceived: 8 November 2024 / Accepted: 27 February 2025 / Published online: 1 April 2025 © The Author(s) 2025  \nAbstract  \nSex and gender may influence the epidemiology, pathogenesis, and prognosis of cancer. This narrative review describes sex and gender differences in the epidemiology and pathogenesis of cancer, and how such differences may impact the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of cancer treatment. For most types of cancer unrelated to reproductive function, incidence is higher in males than in females, except for gallbladder and thyroid cancers, which are much more common in women. Cancer mortality is higher in men than women; women account for a larger proportion of survivors. These differences maybe related to biological differences in pathogenesis or differences in behaviors relating to cancer risk or detection. The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of cancer therapies also differ between sexes due to differences in body composition, physiology, and receptor expression. Overall, sex and gender are essential variables to be considered in research and clinical practice, influencing diagnosis, subtyping (biomarkers), prognostication, treatment, and dosage.  \nKeywords Cancer · Epidemiology · Gender · Pathogenesis · Pharmacology · Sex  \nIntroduction  \nPersonalized therapy for an individual patient should consider all their characteristics, including their sex and gender. The terms ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ are not the same, although they  \n\n| Beatriz Bernardez and Oliver Higuera co-first authors. |\n| --- |\n| Margarita Majem and Maria-Estela Moreno-Martínez co-senior authors. |\n\n* Virginia Martinez-Callejo [virginia.mcallejo@scsalud.es](virginia.mcallejo@scsalud.es)  \n* Ana Cardeña-Gutiérrez[a.cardenna@gmail.com](a.cardenna@gmail.com)  \n1 Departament of Medicine and Pharmacology Group, University of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain  \n2 Oncology Pharmacy Unit, Pharmacy Service, University Clinic Hospital of Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain  \n3 Santiago de Compostela Research Institute (IDIS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain  \n4 Department of Medical Oncology, La Paz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain  \nare often (incorrectly) used interchangeably. Sex refers to the biologically determined features of an individual resulting from chromosomes, reproductive organs, and hormones [1] . Gender is a societal construct based on the expected norms, behaviors, and roles of males and females [2] .  \nThere is growing recognition that sex and gender differences in the pathogenesis of cancer have been overlooked, and that scientists have taken a largely ‘nonsexual’ approach  \n5 Oncology Pharmacy Unit, Pharmacy Service, Marqués de Valdecilla University Hospital, Avda Marqués de Valdecilla, S/N 39008, Santander, Spain  \n6 Department of Medical Oncology, Nuestra Señora de Candelaria University Hospital, Carretera General del Rosario, 145, 38010 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain  \n7 Oncology Pharmacy Unit, Pharmacy Service, Virgen Macarena University Hospital, Sevilla, Spain  \n8 Department of Medical Oncology, La Fe University Hospital, IISLaFe, Valencia, Spain  \n9 Department of Medical Oncology, Santa Creu i Sant Pau Hospital, IIB Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain  \n10 Pharmacy Department, Santa Creu i Sant Pau Hospital, IIB Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain  \n11 Blanquerna School of Health Sciences, University Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain  \nto cancer research. For example, according to one analysis, only 2.5% of published articles from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) have meaningfully address","cbCaiu2c8IGeV7BV","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiu2c8IGeV7BV","pdf",1944085,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n# Methods","[{\"question\":\"How do sex and gender differ in the context of cancer?\",\"answer\":\"The paper distinguishes sex as biologically determined features involving chromosomes, reproductive organs, and hormones, while gender is a societal construct based on expected norms, behaviors, and roles.\"},{\"question\":\"What epidemiology patterns are reported for most cancers?\",\"answer\":\"For most cancer types unrelated to reproductive function, incidence is higher in males than in females, with gallbladder and thyroid cancers being exceptions where women have higher incidence.\"},{\"question\":\"Why can cancer drug pharmacology differ between sexes?\",\"answer\":\"The review attributes differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics to variations in body composition, physiology, and receptor expression between sexes.\"}]","Sex and gender differences in cancer pathogenesis and pharmacology - narrative review | PDF",1790195123]