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Restoration involved scientific examination aimed at clarifying the painting’s materials and techniques. Limited sampling required nine of ten cross-sections to be prepared and analyzed using methods including stereomicroscopy, light microscopy, SEM-EDS, Raman microscopy, and FTIR microspectroscopy. Identified pigments include lead white, vermilion, red iron oxide earth, red lake, natural ultramarine, lead-tin yellow, umber, and carbon and bone blacks. Manganese-containing soda-lime glass was found in ground, imprimatura, and paint layers, and a walnut oil medium was detected by pyrolysis-GCMS. Cross-section stratigraphy showed a size layer, white ground and off-white imprimatura, followed by a complex paint-layer sequence supporting sophisticated visual effects.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/salvator-mundi-an-investigation-of-the-paintings-materials-and-techniques/157605/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/salvator-mundi-an-investigation-of-the-paintings-materials-and-techniques/157605.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Taylor Morgan","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-27","2026-08-29",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":39},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why was the Salvator Mundi painting investigated scientifically during restoration?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"The restoration prompted scientific examination to elucidate the painting’s materials and techniques and to support a reassessment of its authorship.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"Which analytical methods were used to characterize the painting’s materials?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"The study used stereomicroscopy, visible and fluorescent light microscopy, SEM with energy dispersive spectroscopy, Raman microspectroscopy, FTIR microspectroscopy (transmission and ATR), and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What pigments and materials were identified in the painting layers?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Identified pigments include lead white, vermilion, red iron oxide earth, red lake, natural ultramarine, lead-tin yellow, umber, and carbon and bone blacks. 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Herit Sci (2020) 8:39 [https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00382-3](https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-00382-3)  \nRESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access  \nSalvator Mundi: an investigation  \nof the painting’s materials and techniques  \nNica Gutman Rieppi1*, Beth A. Price2, Ken Sutherland2,3, Andrew P. Lins2, Richard Newman4, Peng Wang5, Ting Wang5 and Thomas J. Tague Jr.5  \nAbstract  \nBefore the start of its restoration in 2007, the Salvator Mundi was thought to be one of a number of copies of a longlost Leonardo da Vinci painting, depicting Christ giving a blessing with his right hand while holding a crystal orb in his left. During the restoration treatment, a scientific examination of the painting was carried out to elucidate the painting’s materials and techniques. Microscopic sampling of the painting was necessarily limited, and nine out often samples were prepared and analyzed as cross-sections. A number of analytical methods were employed selectively, including stereomicroscopy, visible and fluorescent light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy, Raman microspectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy in transmission mode and with attenuated total reflection. The pigments characterized were lead white, vermilion, red iron oxide earth, red lake, natural ultramarine, lead–tin yellow, umber, and charcoal, carbon and bone blacks. Manganese-containing soda-lime glass was detected in the ground, imprimatura and paint layers, and a walnut oil medium was identified by pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Cross-section studies revealed aspects of the painting’s stratigraphy: a size layer, white ground and off-white imprimatura, followed by a complex sequence of paint layers applied by the artist to achieve sophisticated visual effects.  \nKeywords: Salvator Mundi, Panel painting, Cross-section, Raman, SEM, FTIR, Py-GCMS, Pigments  \nIntroduction  \nIn 2017, the painting Salvator Mundi was sold as a rediscovered work by Leonardo da Vinci by Christie’s auction house (Fig. 1). However, prior to its restoration treatment between 2007 and 2011, the painting was thought to be one of a number of copies of the possible, long-lost Leonardo painting, an image of which was depicted in a 1650 etching by Wenceslaus Hollar bearing the Latin inscription “Leonardus da Vinci pinxit” (“Leonardo painted it”)  \n[1]. After the layers of discolored varnish and overpaint were removed, the paint handling and surface details of the painting were revealed, leading to a reassessment of its authorship by Leonardo scholars [1, 2]. The uncovering of the original paint surface, affected by paint loss and  \n*Correspondence: [nrieppi@gmail.com](nrieppi@gmail.com)  \n1 Art Analysis & Research, LLC, New York, NY 10018, USA  \nFull list of author information is available at the end of the article  \nabrasion, provided a unique opportunity for examination of the painting’s materials and techniques.1 Certain aspects of the technical examination, including infrared reflectography and X-radiography, have been discussed in a separate publication, which also gives a detailed account of the restoration treatment [2]. In addition to these forms of examination, during the early stages of the restoration, microscopic samples were obtained from inconspicuous yet relatively intact areas of paint and  \n1 Aspects of this research were presented at the CHARISMA conference Leonardo da Vinci’s Technical Practice: Paintings, Drawings and Influence, The National Gallery, London, 13-14 January 2012, co-organized by the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France (C2RMF) and the British Museum, London (Dianne Dwyer Modestini, Beth A. Price, Nica Gutman Rieppi, Ken Sutherland, Robert Simon and Thomas J. Tague Jr.,‘Leonardo da Vinci’s ‘Salvator Mundi’ Rediscovered’); and at a symposium cohosted by New York University and Columbia University, February 18, 2012 (Nica Gutman Rieppi, Beth A. Price, Ken Sutherl","cbCaic8tRAs6ATAl","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaic8tRAs6ATAl","pdf",2954346,12,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction\n## Christie’s sale and restoration context\n## Scientific examination and authorship reassessment\n# Materials and techniques\n## Sampling and cross-section preparation\n## Analytical methods (microscopy, SEM-EDS, Raman, FTIR, Py-GCMS)\n## Pigments and materials identified\n# Findings from cross-section stratigraphy\n## Layer sequence and visual effects","[{\"question\":\"Why was the Salvator Mundi painting investigated scientifically during restoration?\",\"answer\":\"The restoration prompted scientific examination to elucidate the painting’s materials and techniques and to support a reassessment of its authorship.\"},{\"question\":\"Which analytical methods were used to characterize the painting’s materials?\",\"answer\":\"The study used stereomicroscopy, visible and fluorescent light microscopy, SEM with energy dispersive spectroscopy, Raman microspectroscopy, FTIR microspectroscopy (transmission and ATR), and pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.\"},{\"question\":\"What pigments and materials were identified in the painting layers?\",\"answer\":\"Identified pigments include lead white, vermilion, red iron oxide earth, red lake, natural ultramarine, lead-tin yellow, umber, and carbon and bone blacks. Manganese-containing soda-lime glass was detected in multiple layers, and a walnut oil medium was identified by pyrolysis-GCMS.\"}]","Salvator Mundi - an investigation of the painting’s materials and techniques | PDF"]