[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-82696-en":3,"doc-seo-82696-105":29,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":90},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":4,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":20,"is_downloadable":20,"audit_status":20,"page_count":21,"language":22,"language_code":23,"site_id":24,"html_lang":23,"table_of_contents":25,"faqs":26,"seo_title":13,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":27,"read_time":28},82696,3848291630094,"Emma Wilson","https://eur-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_085a072bc5b1113ac321206ff7593b45",8,"Research & Report","Remora Scale-out Deterministic Execution for Smart Contracts","Modern blockchains use modular designs where consensus establishes a transaction order and the execution layer must deterministically follow it under demanding, compute-heavy smart-contract workloads. Single-node validators can no longer sustain this execution bottleneck, motivating scale-out architectures. Remora presents an asymmetric scale-out execution engine with centralized dispatching and distributed execution. Determinism is guaranteed via object versioning and strict ownership, while stateless-stateful separation overlaps state-independent work with consensus. Results show up to 3× higher throughput, scaling to 250k TPS, and up to 5 ms lower latency under real-world traces.","Remora: Scale-out Deterministic Execution for Smart Contracts  \nZhengqing Liu 1 , Alberto Sonnino2,3 , Igor Zablotchi2 , Eleftherios Kokoris Kogias2 , Marios Kogias 1  \n1Imperial College London, 2Mysten Labs, 3University College London  \narXiv :2607 .028 17v 1 [ cs .DC] 2 Jul 2026  \nAbstract  \nModern blockchains rely on a modular architecture that decouples consensus from execution. Recent advances in consensus algorithms have shifted the bottleneck to the execution layer, which must deterministically follow the consensus order and handle increasingly complex, compute-intensive smart contracts. We identify that single-node validators cannot keep up, motivating the need for a scale-out design.  \nWe design Remora, a scale-out smart contract execution engine. Remora adopts an efficient asymmetric architecture with centralized transaction dispatching and distributed execution, and depends on an object versioning scheme with a strict ownership model to guarantee deterministic scale-out execution. Remora achieves up to 3× throughput improvement compared to state-of-the-art deterministic execution schemes, scales up to 250k TPS, matching modern consensus performance, and reduces latency by up to 5􀀼􀁂 . We also show that Remora elastically adapts to bursty workloadsand dynamic access patterns using real-world traces. Remora’s main performance benefits come from a novel stateless-stateful separation during smart contract execution, which overlaps the execution of state-independent tasks with consensus, and a new locality-aware and load-balanced scheduling scheme.  \n1 Introduction  \nModern blockchains are operated by validators, which adopt a layered architecture (Figure 1): the consensus layer establishes a globally ordered sequence of transactions, and the execution layer performs transaction execution. While enormous progress has been made in scaling consensus, with production systems today sustaining 200k–300k transactions per second (TPS) [7, 8], the execution layer has failed to keep pace. The need for faster execution is amplified by the rise of smart contracts, which drive new demands from decentralized applications spanning finance, gaming, and identity [37, 38, 79, 83] . Thus, execution, not consensus, now defines the scalability frontier for blockchains.  \nDespite advances in exploiting multi-core parallelism on smart contract VMs [36, 67, 86, 102], scale-up execution alone cannot meet the computational demands of modern smart contracts. As smart contract logic and cryptographic authentication grow more expensive, due to techniques like zero-knowledge proofs and postquantum cryptography [3, 57, 98], scaling-up becomes impractical as computational needs exceed the capacity of single-node validators. Addressing this bottleneck requires a shift to scale-out designs that distribute validator’s execution across multiple machines.  \nA core requirement of blockchain execution that makes the problem more challenging compared to prior work on distributed transaction processing [48, 62, 116], is strict determinism [20], i.e., preserving the total order established by the consensus layer during execution even in the presence of parallel or distributed executors. In blockchains, replicas are mutually untrusted, and transaction order often carries financial significance in applications like auctions  \nConsensus  \nExecution  \nClient  \nTxns  \n200~300k TPS  \n~300ms window  \n~10k TPS  \n~1ms  \nFigure 1: Validator architecture in modern blockchains.  \nand flash loans. Enforcing the consensus-established order is essential because it guarantees fairness, preserves transparency, and ensures that execution remains verifiable and tamper-proof [70, 89] .  \nIn this work, we ask: how to efficiently scale-out smart contract execution while preserving strict determinism? Revisiting prior work on deterministic transactional systems, we identify two fundamental design pitfalls. First, all prior deterministic databases adopt asymmetric architecture, that du","cbCaikWcnbpD9LCI","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaikWcnbpD9LCI","pdf",1211693,1,21,"English","en",105,"# Introduction\n## Execution bottleneck in modular blockchains\n## Strict determinism as a core requirement\n## Design pitfalls in prior deterministic systems\n## Stateless-stateful separation and consensus-window execution","[{\"question\":\"What problem does Remora address in modern blockchains?\",\"answer\":\"Remora targets the execution-layer bottleneck: smart contracts and cryptographic authentication increase compute demands beyond what single-node validators can deterministically sustain while following consensus order.\"},{\"question\":\"How does Remora preserve strict determinism in a scale-out setup?\",\"answer\":\"Remora uses an object versioning scheme with a strict ownership model, ensuring deterministically correct scale-out execution across distributed executors.\"},{\"question\":\"What architectural idea enables Remora’s performance gains?\",\"answer\":\"Remora separates stateless and stateful execution, overlapping state-independent work with the consensus process, and uses locality-aware, load-balanced scheduling to improve throughput and reduce latency.\"}]",1784182347,53,{"code":4,"msg":30,"data":31},"ok",{"site_id":24,"language":23,"slug":32,"title":13,"keywords":33,"description":14,"schema_data":34,"social_meta":85,"head_meta":87,"extra_data":89,"updated_unix":27},"remora-scale-out-deterministic-execution-for-smart-contracts","",{"@graph":35,"@context":84},[36,53,67],{"@type":37,"itemListElement":38},"BreadcrumbList",[39,43,47,50],{"item":40,"name":41,"@type":42,"position":20},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":44,"name":45,"@type":42,"position":46},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",2,{"item":48,"name":12,"@type":42,"position":49},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":51,"name":13,"@type":42,"position":52},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/remora-scale-out-deterministic-execution-for-smart-contracts/82696/",4,{"url":51,"name":13,"@type":54,"author":55,"headline":13,"publisher":57,"fileFormat":60,"inLanguage":23,"description":14,"dateModified":61,"datePublished":61,"encodingFormat":60,"isAccessibleForFree":62,"interactionStatistic":63},"DigitalDocument",{"name":9,"@type":56},"Person",{"url":40,"name":58,"@type":59},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-07-16",true,{"@type":64,"interactionType":65,"userInteractionCount":4},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":66},"ViewAction",{"@type":68,"mainEntity":69},"FAQPage",[70,76,80],{"name":71,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":73},"What problem does Remora address in modern blockchains?","Question",{"text":74,"@type":75},"Remora targets the execution-layer bottleneck: smart contracts and cryptographic authentication increase compute demands beyond what single-node validators can deterministically sustain while following consensus order.","Answer",{"name":77,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":78},"How does Remora preserve strict determinism in a scale-out setup?",{"text":79,"@type":75},"Remora uses an object versioning scheme with a strict ownership model, ensuring deterministically correct scale-out execution across distributed executors.",{"name":81,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":82},"What architectural idea enables Remora’s performance gains?",{"text":83,"@type":75},"Remora separates stateless and stateful execution, overlapping state-independent work with the consensus process, and uses locality-aware, load-balanced scheduling to improve throughput and reduce 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