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This review evaluates the difficulties and opportunities in applying immunotherapy to pancreatic cancer, emphasizing how artificial intelligence (AI) can support earlier detection and ongoing assessment of therapeutic effectiveness. It synthesizes recent advances, highlights research gaps, and outlines how AI–immunotherapy integration may enable more personalized and more effective treatment strategies, informing future studies and improving patient outcomes.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":35,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/healthcare/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/predicting-and-monitoring-immune-checkpoint-inhibitor-therapy-using-artificial-intelligence-in-pancreatic-cancer-review/338503/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/predicting-and-monitoring-immune-checkpoint-inhibitor-therapy-using-artificial-intelligence-in-pancreatic-cancer-review/338503.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Evangeline","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-23","2026-09-21",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":19},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"Why is early detection of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) difficult?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"PDAC is often asymptomatic early and lacks specific biomarkers, which delays diagnosis and contributes to high mortality.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What is pseudoprogression in cancer immunotherapy, and why does it matter?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"Pseudoprogression refers to transient tumor enlargement or new lesions caused by T-cell infiltration. It can be misinterpreted as progression by traditional response criteria, making early assessment difficult.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How does AI support monitoring immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in pancreatic cancer?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"AI can leverage medical imaging to identify novel biomarkers and improve quantification of tumor burden and treatment response, using approaches such as radiomics and advanced statistical methods.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},338503,1790484814,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":34,"category_name":35,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":19,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145},13056703019662,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/be000253a8e92610077?_k=1778726343310543188","Review  \nPredicting and Monitoring Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy Using Artificial Intelligence in Pancreatic Cancer  \nGuangbo Yu 1,†, Zigeng Zhang 2,†, Aydin Eresen 2,3, Qiaoming Hou 2, Farideh Amirrad 4, Sha Webster 4, Surya Nauli 4,5, Vahid Yaghmai 2,3 and Zhuoli Zhang 1,2,3,6, *  \nCitation: Yu, G.; Zhang, Z.; Eresen, A.; Hou, Q.; Amirrad, F.; Webster, S.; Nauli, S.; Yaghmai, V.; Zhang, Z. Predicting and Monitoring Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy Using Artificial Intelligence in Pancreatic Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024, 25, 12038 . [https://doi.org/10.3390/](https://doi.org/10.3390/)[ ](https://doi.org/10.3390/)ijms252212038  \nAcademic Editor: Pinar Uysal-Onganer  \nReceived: 14 October 2024  \nRevised: 1 November 2024  \nAccepted: 4 November 2024  \nPublished: 9 November 2024  \nCopyright: © 2024 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ([https://](https://)[ ](https://)[creativecommons.org/licenses/by/](creativecommons.org/licenses/by/)[ ](creativecommons.org/licenses/by/)[4.0/](4.0/)) .  \n1 Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92617, USA; [guangboy@uci.edu](guangboy@uci.edu)  \n2 Department of Radiological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92868, USA;  \n[zigengz@hs.uci.edu](zigengz@hs.uci.edu) (Z.Z.); [aeresen@hs.uci.edu](aeresen@hs.uci.edu) (A.E.); [qiaominh@hs.uci.edu](qiaominh@hs.uci.edu) (Q.H.);  \n[vyaghmai@hs.uci.edu](vyaghmai@hs.uci.edu) (V.Y.)  \n3 Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92612, USA  \n4 Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Harry and Diane Rinker Health Science Campus, Chapman University, Irvine, CA 92618, USA; [amirrad@chapman.edu](amirrad@chapman.edu) (F.A.); [shwebster@chapman.edu](shwebster@chapman.edu) (S.W.); [nauli@chapman.edu](nauli@chapman.edu) (S.N.)  \n5 Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92868, USA  \n6 Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92617, USA  \n* Correspondence: [zhuoliz1@hs.uci.edu](zhuoliz1@hs.uci.edu); Tel.: +1-(949)-824-5886 † These authors contributed equally to this work.  \nAbstract: Pancreatic cancer remains one of the most lethal cancers, primarily due to its late diagnosis and limited treatment options. This review examines the challenges and potential of using immunotherapy to treat pancreatic cancer, highlighting the role of artificial intelligence (AI) as a promising tool to enhance early detection and monitor the effectiveness of these therapies. By synthesizing recent advancements and identifying gaps in the current research, this review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of how AI and immunotherapy can be integrated to develop more personalized and effective treatment strategies. The insights from this review may guide future research efforts and contribute to improving patient outcomes in pancreatic cancer management.  \nKeywords: PDAC; immunotherapy; immune checkpoint inhibitors; radiomics; artificial intelligence; deep learning; machine learning  \n1. Introduction  \nPancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a significant global health challenge, ranking as the fourth leading cause of cancer-related mortality, causing 466,003 deaths annually worldwide. In the United States, the 5-year relative survival rate for pancreatic cancer is alarmingly low, standing at merely 12%[1] . Forecasts from 2021 suggest that by 2040, the number of deaths caused by pancreatic cancer will surpass those caused by colorectal cancer, making it the second leading cause of cancer-related death in the United States [2] . Since it is predominantly diagnosed at advanced stages, PDAC treatment options are limited, with surgical intervention being the traditional approach. However, the efficacy of surgery for late-stage PDAC is significantly compr","cbCaioJhXC4QjFnx","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaioJhXC4QjFnx","pdf",806779,14,"English","# Introduction\n## Challenges in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC)\n## Atypical response in cancer immunotherapy (CIT)\n## Limits of RECIST-like criteria\n## Role of artificial intelligence (AI)","[{\"question\":\"Why is early detection of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) difficult?\",\"answer\":\"PDAC is often asymptomatic early and lacks specific biomarkers, which delays diagnosis and contributes to high mortality.\"},{\"question\":\"What is pseudoprogression in cancer immunotherapy, and why does it matter?\",\"answer\":\"Pseudoprogression refers to transient tumor enlargement or new lesions caused by T-cell infiltration. It can be misinterpreted as progression by traditional response criteria, making early assessment difficult.\"},{\"question\":\"How does AI support monitoring immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy in pancreatic cancer?\",\"answer\":\"AI can leverage medical imaging to identify novel biomarkers and improve quantification of tumor burden and treatment response, using approaches such as radiomics and advanced statistical methods.\"}]","Predicting and Monitoring Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy Using Artificial Intelligence in Pancreatic Cancer - Review | PDF",1790023898,35]