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We furthermore thank the following companies for their detailed feedback and contributions: Acerinox, Allegheny Ludlum, Aperam, Aquatech, ArcelorMittal, Baosteel, Columbus Stainless,  \nJSL Limited, Nippon Yakin Kogyo, North American Stainless, Outokumpu Stainless, Sandvik, Swagelok, and Yieh United Steel Corporation.  \nThe International Molybdenum Association (IMOA) has made every effort to ensure that the information presented is technically correct. However, IMOA does not represent or warrant the accuracy of the information contained in this handbook or its suitability for any general or specific use. The reader is advised that the material contained herein is for information purposes only; it is not intended as a substitute for any person’s procedures, and should not be used or relied upon for any specific or general application without first obtaining competent advice. IMOA, its members, staff and consultants specifically disclaim any and all liability or responsibility of any kind for loss, damage, or injury resulting from the use of the information contained in this publication. ASTM’s and EN international specifications  \nwere used predominantly in this publication; however, materialspecifications may vary among countries.  \nCover photo: Meads Reach, Temple Quai, Bristol, UK.  \n© [www.m-tec.uk.com](www.m-tec.uk.com) (fabricator), [www.photo-genics.com](www.photo-genics.com) (photo)  \nContents  \n1 Introduction 4  \n2 History of duplex stainless steels 5  \n3 Chemical composition and role of  \nalloying elements 8  \n3.1 Chemical composition of duplex stainless steels 8  \n3.2 The role of the alloying elements in duplex stainless steels 8  \n4 Metallurgy of duplex stainless steels 10  \n4.1 Austenite-ferrite phase balance 10  \n4.2 Precipitates 11  \n5 Corrosion resistance 14  \n5.1 Resistance to acids 14  \n5.2 Resistance to caustics 15  \n5.3 Pitting and crevice corrosion resistance 15  \n5.4 Stress corrosion cracking resistance 17  \n6 End user specifications and quality control 20  \n6.1 Standard testing requirements 20  \n6.1.1 Chemical composition 20  \n6.1.2 Solution annealing and quenching 20  \n6.2 Special testing requirements 21  \n6.2.1 Tensile and hardness tests 21  \n6.2.2 Bend tests 22  \n6.2.3 Impact testing and metallographic  \nexamination for detrimental phases 22  \n6.2.4 Phase balance as determined by  \nmetallography or magnetic measurements 23  \n6.2.5 Corrosion testing 24  \n6.2.6 Production welding and inspection 25  \n7 Mechanical properties 26  \n8 Physical properties 29  \n9 Cutting 31  \n9.1 Sawing 31  \n9.2 Shearing 31  \n9.3 Slitting 31  \n9.4 Punching 31  \n9.5 Plasma and laser cutting 31  \n10 Forming 32  \n10.1 Hot-forming 32  \n10.1.1 Solution annealing 33  \n10.2 Warm forming 34  \n10.3 Cold forming 34  \n10.4 Press forming 35  \n10.5 Spinforming 35  \n11 Machining duplex stainless steels 36  \n11.1 General guidelines for machining duplex stainless steels 36  \n11.2 Turning and facing 37  \n11.3 Face milling with cemented carbides 38  \n11.4 Twist drilling with high-speed steel drills 39  \n12 Welding duplex stainless steels 40  \n12.1 General welding guidelines 40  \n12.1.1 Differences between duplex and austenitic stainless steels 40  \n12.1.2 Selection of starting material 40  \n12.1.3 Cleaning before welding 40  \n12.1.4 Joint design 40  \n12.1.5 Preheating 42  \n12.1.6 Heat input and interpass temperature 42  \n12.1.7 Postweld heat treatment 42  \n","cbCainwS4EJEDy2F","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCainwS4EJEDy2F","pdf",3779687,68,"English","# Introduction\n# History of duplex stainless steels\n# Chemical composition and role of alloying elements\n## Chemical composition of duplex stainless steels\n## The role of the alloying elements in duplex stainless steels\n# Metallurgy of duplex stainless steels\n## Austenite-ferrite phase balance\n## Precipitates\n# Corrosion resistance\n## Resistance to acids\n## Resistance to caustics\n## Pitting and crevice corrosion resistance\n## Stress corrosion cracking resistance\n# End user specifications and quality control\n## Standard testing requirements\n## Special testing requirements\n# Mechanical properties\n# Physical properties\n# Cutting\n## Sawing\n## Shearing\n## Slitting\n## Punching\n## Plasma and laser cutting\n# Forming\n## Hot-forming\n## Warm forming\n## Cold forming\n## Press forming\n## Spinforming\n# Machining duplex stainless steels\n## General guidelines for machining duplex stainless steels\n## Turning and facing\n## Face milling with cemented carbides\n## Twist drilling with high-speed steel drills\n# Welding duplex stainless steels\n## General welding guidelines\n## Welding procedure qualifications\n## Welding methods\n# Other joining techniques\n## Joint preparation\n## Adhesives\n## Soldering\n## Brazing\n# Post-fabrication cleanup\n## Crayon marks, paint, dirt, oil\n## Embedded iron\n## Weld spatter, weld discoloration, flux, slag, arc strikes\n# Duplex stainless steel applications\n# Suggested additional reading\n# References\n# Appendix 1: Duplex stainless steel designations and product names\n# Appendix 2: Summary of specifications","[{\"question\":\"What are the key benefits of duplex stainless steels addressed in the handbook introduction?\",\"answer\":\"Duplex stainless steels combine good corrosion resistance with high strength and ease of fabrication. They provide significantly greater strength than austenitic grades while maintaining good ductility and toughness.\"},{\"question\":\"Which topics does the handbook cover regarding corrosion resistance?\",\"answer\":\"It covers resistance to acids and caustics, pitting and crevice corrosion resistance, and stress corrosion cracking resistance. It links these behaviors to alloying elements such as chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, and nitrogen.\"},{\"question\":\"What fabrication areas are included beyond corrosion and composition?\",\"answer\":\"The handbook includes quality control for end-user specifications, mechanical and physical properties, cutting, forming, machining, welding, other joining techniques, post-fabrication cleanup, and duplex stainless steel applications.\"}]","Practical Guidelines for the Fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels - Third edition - Handbook | PDF",171]