[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":-1},["ShallowReactive",2],{"doc-detail-108483-en":3,"doc-seo-108483-105":30,"detail-sidebar-cat-0-en-105":90},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":6},0,"success",{"doc_id":7,"user_id":8,"nickname":9,"user_avatar":10,"doc_module":4,"category_id":11,"category_name":12,"doc_title":13,"doc_description":14,"doc_content":15,"file_id":16,"file_url":17,"file_type":18,"file_size":19,"view_count":20,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":21,"is_downloadable":21,"audit_status":21,"page_count":22,"language":23,"language_code":24,"site_id":25,"html_lang":24,"table_of_contents":26,"faqs":27,"seo_title":28,"seo_description":14,"update_tm":29,"read_time":11},108483,5909877438554,"Maeve","https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/avatar/5600025385ad2bf12a7?_k=1778553567797529272",8,"Research & Report","Pakistan Country Climate and Development Report - Annex 3 - Groundwater Irrigation in Punjab","Data from a May–June 2022 survey of 10,000 farmers across Punjab characterizes groundwater irrigation using four stylized facts. The analysis contrasts skewed tubewell ownership with flatter groundwater use linked to sales/neighbor transfers and land leasing. It details motive power patterns (diesel, electricity, solar) and how electric tubewells contribute disproportionately to irrigation and transfers, alongside groundwater pricing similarities across power sources. It also examines brackishness by canal position, showing tail reaches have higher brackish water yields without corresponding price differences.","Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized  \nPAKISTAN COUNTRY CLIMATE AND DEVELOPMENT REPORT  \n Annex 3   \nGroundwater Irrigation in Punjab  \nData from a survey of 10,000 farmers across Punjab, conducted in May and June 2022, establishes four key stylized facts about groundwater irrigation in Punjab Province, where the vast majority of Pakistan's tubewells are located.  \nTubewell ownership vs. groundwater use: Whereas the distribution of tubewell ownership is heavily skewed toward larger landowners, the distribution of groundwater use is much flatter. Groundwater is transferred principally either through direct sales to neighbors or through land leasing, whereas tubewell and associated water rights are rented out along with the land. Land leasing explains why groundwater use is somewhat less prevalent than tubewells ownership for landowners who have more than 20 acres.  \nFigure 3.1: Tubewells Ownership of Landowners  \n0-2.5 acres 2.5-5 acres 5-10 acres 10-20 acres 20+ acres  \n0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1  \n Own tubewell  Use groundwater  \nPunjab Farmer Phone Survey, World Bank 2022  \nMotive power: 67 percent of tubewells run on diesel, 27 percent on electricity, and 6 percent are solarpowered. However, electric tubewells provide 47 percent of total groundwater for irrigation and 58 percent of groundwater transfers to nonowners of tubewells—figures that are much closer to or higher than those for diesel tubewells on an irrigated area basis. Electric tubewell ownership is also relatively more concentrated among the largest landowners (>20 acres) . Reforms to electricity pricing and/or availability for agriculture could thus have important distributional implications.  \nFigure 3.2: Power Sources of Tubewells  \n2%  \nTubewell irrigated area via sale/transfer  \n58%  \n40%  \nElectric  Diesel  Solar  \nFigure 3.3: Groundwater Price  \n0 100 200 300 400  \nRs. per hour (median)  \nPunjab Farmer Phone Survey, World Bank 2022  \nGroundwater sales prices: Although the marginal cost of pumping is substantially lower for electricpowered tubewells, as compared to diesel-powered ones, there is no perceptible difference in the sales prices of groundwater by motive power. Solar-powered tubewells are the exception, but they represent only 2 percent of groundwater sales. Groundwater prices from both types of tubewells are about 25 percent higher than the hourly diesel cost of around Rs. 300 (US$1 .5) 1 , which raises the question of how electricity market reforms will affect groundwater buyers. If the equilibrium price of groundwater in a location is set by the hourly pumping cost of the “marginal” supplier, that is, a diesel tubewell owner, then the welfare effects of changes in the price of electricity will be fully absorbed by the owners of electric tubewells. Proper accounting of the distributional implications of electricity reform, however, requires a fuller understanding of the market for groundwater.  \nFigure 3.4: Groundwater and Soil Quality by Canal Position  \nHead  \nMiddle  \nTail  \nNo canal  \n0 .1 .2 .3  \nPunjab Farmer Phone Survey, World Bank 2022  \n Tubewell water brackish  Plot salinity/sodicity  \n1 Exchange rate in May-June 2022  \nGroundwater quality by canal position: 23 percent of all tubewells yield brackish to very brackish water. Atthe tail reaches of canals, this rises to 28 percent, as compared to 20 percent atthe head of the canal. This pattern reflects better recharge at channel heads, due to seepage of sweet canal water. There is no corresponding difference in groundwater prices by either the brackishness of groundwater or by channel position. Paradoxically, the least brackish groundwater is reported by tubewell owners in areas with no canal irrigation whatsoever. However, these rainfed areas also have a substantially lower incidence of groundwater use, suggesting that the exploitation of low-quality groundwater is simply less viable outside canal irrigated zones. Thus, the paradox is likely explained by“selection bias” in exist","cbCaiiqg6m2jWSCI","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiiqg6m2jWSCI","pdf",99514,2,1,3,"English","en",105,"# Overview\n## Tubewell ownership vs groundwater use\n## Motive power and irrigation transfers\n## Groundwater prices\n## Groundwater quality by canal position","[{\"question\":\"How does tubewell ownership relate to groundwater use in Punjab?\",\"answer\":\"Groundwater use is more evenly distributed than tubewell ownership. Sales to neighbors and land leasing shift groundwater access away from owners, making use flatter than ownership.\"},{\"question\":\"What share of tubewells uses different motive powers, and why is it important?\",\"answer\":\"Diesel runs most tubewells, but electricity provides a larger share of total groundwater for irrigation and a higher share of transfers to nonowners. This implies electricity pricing and availability reforms could significantly affect distributional outcomes.\"},{\"question\":\"How does groundwater quality vary by canal position, and what does it imply?\",\"answer\":\"Brackish-to-very brackish water is more prevalent toward the tail reaches of canals than at the head. Canal seepage improves recharge near heads, and the absence of corresponding price differences suggests quality constraints mainly affect viability and observed selection in existing tubewells.\"}]","Pakistan Country Climate and Development Report - Annex 3 - Groundwater Irrigation in Punjab | PDF",1784471530,{"code":4,"msg":31,"data":32},"ok",{"site_id":25,"language":24,"slug":33,"title":13,"keywords":34,"description":14,"schema_data":35,"social_meta":85,"head_meta":87,"extra_data":89,"updated_unix":29},"pakistan-country-climate-and-development-report-annex-3-groundwater-irrigation-in-punjab","",{"@graph":36,"@context":84},[37,52,67],{"@type":38,"itemListElement":39},"BreadcrumbList",[40,44,47,49],{"item":41,"name":42,"@type":43,"position":21},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":45,"name":46,"@type":43,"position":20},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/","Document",{"item":48,"name":12,"@type":43,"position":22},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",{"item":50,"name":13,"@type":43,"position":51},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/pakistan-country-climate-and-development-report-annex-3-groundwater-irrigation-in-punjab/108483/",4,{"url":50,"name":13,"@type":53,"author":54,"headline":13,"publisher":56,"fileFormat":59,"inLanguage":24,"description":14,"dateModified":60,"datePublished":61,"encodingFormat":59,"isAccessibleForFree":62,"interactionStatistic":63},"DigitalDocument",{"name":9,"@type":55},"Person",{"url":41,"name":57,"@type":58},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-08-03","2026-07-19",true,{"@type":64,"interactionType":65,"userInteractionCount":20},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":66},"ViewAction",{"@type":68,"mainEntity":69},"FAQPage",[70,76,80],{"name":71,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":73},"How does tubewell ownership relate to groundwater use in Punjab?","Question",{"text":74,"@type":75},"Groundwater use is more evenly distributed than tubewell ownership. Sales to neighbors and land leasing shift groundwater access away from owners, making use flatter than ownership.","Answer",{"name":77,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":78},"What share of tubewells uses different motive powers, and why is it important?",{"text":79,"@type":75},"Diesel runs most tubewells, but electricity provides a larger share of total groundwater for irrigation and a higher share of transfers to nonowners. This implies electricity pricing and availability reforms could significantly affect distributional outcomes.",{"name":81,"@type":72,"acceptedAnswer":82},"How does groundwater quality vary by canal position, and what does it imply?",{"text":83,"@type":75},"Brackish-to-very brackish water is more prevalent toward the tail reaches of canals than at the head. Canal seepage improves recharge near heads, and the absence of corresponding price differences suggests quality constraints mainly affect viability and observed selection in existing tubewells.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":50,"og:type":86,"og:title":13,"og:site_name":57,"og:description":14},"article",{"robots":88,"canonical":50},"index,follow",{"doc_id":7,"site_id":25},{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":91},[92,96,100,104,109,114,119,122,127,130,134],{"id":21,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":93,"show_sort_weight":94,"slug":95},"Story & Novel",90,"story-novel",{"id":20,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":97,"show_sort_weight":98,"slug":99},"Literature",80,"literature",{"id":51,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":101,"show_sort_weight":102,"slug":103},"Exam",70,"exam",{"id":105,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":106,"show_sort_weight":107,"slug":108},5,"Comic",60,"comic",{"id":110,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":111,"show_sort_weight":112,"slug":113},6,"Technology",50,"technology",{"id":115,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":116,"show_sort_weight":117,"slug":118},7,"Healthcare",40,"healthcare",{"id":11,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":12,"show_sort_weight":120,"slug":121},30,"research-report",{"id":123,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":124,"show_sort_weight":125,"slug":126},9,"Religion & Spirituality",20,"religion-spirituality",{"id":125,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":128,"show_sort_weight":125,"slug":129},"World Cup","world-cup",{"id":131,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":132,"show_sort_weight":131,"slug":133},10,"Lifestyle","lifestyle",{"id":135,"doc_module":4,"doc_module_name":46,"category_name":136,"show_sort_weight":105,"slug":137},19,"General","general"]