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Drawing on educational hierarchical reproduction theory and the MMI and EMI hypotheses, the study evaluates effects of expanding overall enrollment and adjusting the general-vocational ratio. Findings show that increasing enrollment in both general high schools and secondary vocational schools can improve admission opportunity equity, and reallocating places toward general high schools can reduce class disparities. Changes in scale or structure do not meaningfully ease inequality in top-university access.",{"@graph":69,"@context":123},[70,84,106],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/online-shadow-education-in-hong-kong-perspectives-from-secondary-school-students-and-private-tutors/595155/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/online-shadow-education-in-hong-kong-perspectives-from-secondary-school-students-and-private-tutors/595155.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Bulrr","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-11-05","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":105},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",12,{"@type":107,"mainEntity":108},"FAQPage",[109,115,119],{"name":110,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":112},"How does secondary-level tracking relate to higher-education equity in Hong Kong?","Question",{"text":113,"@type":114},"The study analyzes how tracking between general and vocational education affects equity in higher-education admission opportunities among different social classes.","Answer",{"name":116,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":117},"What enrollment changes can improve admission opportunity equity?",{"text":118,"@type":114},"Increasing gross enrollment rates in both general high schools and secondary vocational schools helps improve equity in college and university admission opportunities.",{"name":120,"@type":111,"acceptedAnswer":121},"Do changes in the scale or structure of tracking reduce inequality in top-university admissions?",{"text":122,"@type":114},"The study finds that neither changes in the scale nor adjustments in the structure of general and vocational tracks alleviate class inequality in top-university enrollment opportunities.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":125,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":127,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":129,"site_id":62},595155,1792171366,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":132},{"doc_id":129,"user_id":133,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":134,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":135,"file_id":136,"file_url":137,"file_type":138,"file_size":139,"view_count":105,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":140,"language":141,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":142,"faqs":143,"seo_title":144,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":145,"read_time":146,"preview_page_count":4},5909892115043,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_6f874abed73319feea01a86fa6f0fab8","Online Shadow Education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from Secondary School Students and Private Tutors  \nChing Ho Cheng  \nHong Kong Adventist College, N.T., Hong Kong, China  \n\n| Abstract: Based on the educational hierarchical reproduction theory and the MMIandEMI hypotheses, this paper discusses the impact of the tracking of general and vocational education at the secondary level on higher education opportunity equity among social classes. The study finds that increasing gross enrollment rates of both general high schools and secondary vocational schools can help improve the equity in admission opportunities of colleges and universities among social strata; expanding the share of general high school places by adjusting the structure of general and vocational tracks (that is, the generalvocational ratio) can effectively reduce the class disparities in college and university admission opportunities; neither the change in the scale nor in the structure of general and vocational tracks will contribute to alleviating class inequality in top university enrollment opportunities.\u003Cbr>Best Evidence in Chinese Education 2022; 11(2):1477-1497.\u003Cbr>Doi: 10.15354/bece.22.or063 |\n| --- |\n| How to Cite: Cheng, C.H. (2022). Online shadow education in Hong Kong: Perspectives from secondary school students and private tutors. Best Evidence in Chinese Education, 11(2):1477-1497. |\n\nKeywords: Shadow Education, Online Education, Secondary School  \nCorrespondence to: Ching Ho Cheng, General Education Department, HongKong Adventist College, 1111 Clear  \nWater Bay Road, Sai Kung, N. T., HongKong, [China. E-mail:](China. E-mail: Richard.cheng@hkac.edu)[ ](China. E-mail: Richard.cheng@hkac.edu)[Richard.cheng@hkac.edu](China. E-mail: Richard.cheng@hkac.edu)  \nConflict of Interests: None.  \n© 2022 Insights Publisher. All rights reserved.  \nCreative Commons Non Commercial CC BY-NC: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 License  \n([http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/](http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed by the Insights Publisher.  \nIntroduction  \nDURING the COVID-19 pandemic situation, there have been many transfor  \nmations in different sectors of society. Education is one of these sectors, in  \ncluding in the modes of teaching and learning, as schools need to follow strict virus prevention guidelines. Harris and Jones (2020) described how COVID-19 has shaken the education world and has brought many chaotic moments to schools around the world. Although the pandemic has led to ‘undeniable chaos’ (Hargreaves and Fullan, 2020), it has also made educators change. For example, lessons have been reorganized (Zhao, 2020), and computer software has begun to play an even more important role. As for school leaders, many decisions have been made in response to newly required protocols and procedures (Netolicky, 2020) . Furthermore, not only the mainstream schools need to follow the guidelines set by the Hong Kong Education Bureau; the private tutoring sector must also follow these rules, as they are also managed by the bureau (Eng, 2019) . As a result, private tutorial centers in Hong Kong cannot open for face-to-face lessons, and some of these centers have been forced into bankruptcy. Other centers have installed software, such as Zoom and Google Classroom, which allows students to attend lessons online.  \nThe focus of this paper is how students and private tutors felt about teaching and learning in online private tutoring. This can help us determine whether online shadow education is a viable alternative during the pandemic. This study attempts to answer several questions:  \n(1) What are students’ and private tutors’ general impressions of online tutoring?  \n(2) What are some of the areas that private tutors need to be aware of in onl","cbCaidUhWvKyLxdc","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaidUhWvKyLxdc","pdf",400046,21,"English","# Introduction\n## COVID-19 and education changes\n## Focus and research questions\n# What is Shadow Education?\n## Definition and role in Hong Kong\n## Exam-driven demand\n# Shadow Education around the World\n## Cross-cultural variations\n## Demand in East Asia","[{\"question\":\"How does secondary-level tracking relate to higher-education equity in Hong Kong?\",\"answer\":\"The study analyzes how tracking between general and vocational education affects equity in higher-education admission opportunities among different social classes.\"},{\"question\":\"What enrollment changes can improve admission opportunity equity?\",\"answer\":\"Increasing gross enrollment rates in both general high schools and secondary vocational schools helps improve equity in college and university admission opportunities.\"},{\"question\":\"Do changes in the scale or structure of tracking reduce inequality in top-university admissions?\",\"answer\":\"The study finds that neither changes in the scale nor adjustments in the structure of general and vocational tracks alleviate class inequality in top-university enrollment opportunities.\"}]","Online Shadow Education in Hong Kong - Perspectives from Secondary School Students and Private Tutors | PDF",1792080539,53]