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This study uses fixed-effects models to estimate academic differences for students taking online versus face-to-face courses, including first-time attempts and credit recovery. Results show positive contemporaneous outcomes for virtual students, but downstream outcomes vary by attempt type: first-time virtual course taking can reduce follow-on enrollment and graduation readiness, while credit recovery virtual course taking can increase follow-on success and graduation alignment.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/online-learning-offline-outcomes-online-course-taking-and-high-school-student-performance/589885/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/online-learning-offline-outcomes-online-course-taking-and-high-school-student-performance/589885.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Cart","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-30","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":39},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"How does the study compare online and face-to-face course effects?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"It uses fixed effects models to estimate differences in contemporaneous and downstream academic outcomes between students taking courses virtually and in person, for both initial attempts and credit recovery.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What are the main differences in outcomes for first-time versus credit recovery virtual students?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"First-time virtual course taking is associated with decreases in the likelihood of taking and passing follow-on courses and in graduation readiness. Credit recovery virtual course taking is associated with increased likelihood of taking and passing follow-on courses and being in line for graduation.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"Do the authors consider the possibility that unobserved selection drives the results?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"Yes. Supplemental analyses indicate that selection on unobservables would have to be substantial to render the findings null.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},589885,1792189367,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":39,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},18829141979164,"https://eur-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_6f874abed73319feea01a86fa6f0fab8","AERA Open  \nJanuary-March 2019, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1–17 DOI: 10. 1177/2332858419832852  \nArticle reuse guidelines: [sagepub.com/journals-permissions](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)[ ](sagepub.com/journals-permissions)© The Author(s) 2019. [http://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero](http://journals.sagepub.com/home/ero)  \nOnline Learning, Offline Outcomes: Online Course Taking and High School Student Performance  \nCassandra M. D. Hart  \nUniversity of California, Davis  \nDan Berger  \nBrian Jacob  \nUniversity of Michigan  \nSusanna Loeb  \nStanford University  \nMichael Hill  \nUniversity of California, Davis  \nThis article uses fixed effects models to estimate differences in contemporaneous and downstream academic outcomes for students who take courses virtually and face-to-face—both for initial attempts and for credit recovery. We find that while contemporaneous outcomes are positive for virtual students in both settings, downstream outcomes vary by attempt type. For first-time course takers, virtual course taking is associated with decreases in the likelihood of taking and passing follow-on courses and in graduation readiness (based on a proxy measure). For credit recovery students, virtual course taking is associated with an increased likelihood of taking and passing follow-on courses and being in line for graduation. Supplemental analyses suggest that selection on unobservables would have to be substantial to render these results null.  \nKeywords: achievement, educational outcomes, high school, high school graduation, online courses, online instruction, virtual courses, virtual instruction  \nVirtual education has expanded rapidly over the past 15 years. In 2002–2003, K–12 students took an estimated 317,000 virtual courses nationwide, as opposed to about 1.8 million enrollments in 2009–2010 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2012) . New estimates suggest that this growth has continued apace in recent years, with an estimated 4.5 million K–12 course enrollments taken through online providers in 2014–2015 (Evergreen Education Group, 2015) . Several states, including Florida, have established or are considering requirements for students to engage in at least one online learning experience before graduating, setting the stage for additional expansion of virtual course taking in coming years (Evergreen Education Group, 2015) . Online learning advocates maintain that experience with online learning will be advantageous to students in an economy that rewards digital competency (Sheehy, 2012). Moreover, online course taking may reduce disparities in the quality of teaching across schools, as teachers are not tied to specific schools, and it may allow for pedagogical innovations.  \nDespite this steady growth in K–12 virtual course taking, we know little about how these courses affect student  \nachievement (Means, Toyama, Murphy, & Bakia, 2013) . On the one hand, proponents of virtual education point to several ways that virtual education could provide higher-quality education for students as compared with traditional classroom settings. For instance, virtual classes may allow students to work at a more individualized pace. This individualized pacing may help slower learners by allowing them to repeat confusing material until they master it, and it can help faster learners by allowing them to move on when they master material, without requiring them to sit through repetitious explanations (Berge & Clark, 2005; Tallent-Runnels et al., 2006) . Virtual courses may also be well suited to provide immediate feedback on student performance to both students and teachers through intelligent tutoring systems, and they may provide for a uniquely interactive experience between students and the texts that they access (Means, Bakia, & Murphy, 2014) . For instance, if students are able to click on links within lessons that provide them additional detail on a subject of interest, that will allow them to explore their interests interactively. Moreove","cbCaijeTRq49nISv","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaijeTRq49nISv","pdf",388065,17,"English","# Introduction\n# Research Approach and Data Focus\n## Outcome Types and Attempt Distinctions\n# Findings: Concurrent vs Downstream Outcomes\n# Implications and Robustness Considerations","[{\"question\":\"How does the study compare online and face-to-face course effects?\",\"answer\":\"It uses fixed effects models to estimate differences in contemporaneous and downstream academic outcomes between students taking courses virtually and in person, for both initial attempts and credit recovery.\"},{\"question\":\"What are the main differences in outcomes for first-time versus credit recovery virtual students?\",\"answer\":\"First-time virtual course taking is associated with decreases in the likelihood of taking and passing follow-on courses and in graduation readiness. Credit recovery virtual course taking is associated with increased likelihood of taking and passing follow-on courses and being in line for graduation.\"},{\"question\":\"Do the authors consider the possibility that unobserved selection drives the results?\",\"answer\":\"Yes. Supplemental analyses indicate that selection on unobservables would have to be substantial to render the findings null.\"}]","Online Learning, Offline Outcomes: Online Course Taking and High School Student Performance | PDF",1792068328,43]