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This study tested whether stronger associations and increased time learning spatial relationships improve performance in a serial reversal task with multiple choices. 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\n[https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-025-02024-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-025-02024-2)  \nORIGINAL PAPER  \nMore experience in the initial learning of spatial information improves cognitive flexibility in food-caching chickadees  \nA. A. H. Richmond1 · V. K. Heinen1,2 · J. F. Welklin1 · B. R. Sonnenberg1,3 · S. M. Haley1 · L. E. Whitenack1 · E. S. Bridge4 ·  \nV. V. Pravosudov1  \nReceived: 24 April 2025 / Revised: 17 October 2025 / Accepted: 25 October 2025 © The Author(s) 2025  \nAbstract  \nCognitive flexibility - the ability to adjust previously learned associations given novel information - is hypothesized to allow animals to respond to variable conditions. While cognitive flexibility is thought to primarily rely on executive control, previous experiences may interfere with learning. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that strength of associations should improve cognitive flexibility and that birds given more time to learn different spatial associations would perform better in a serial reversal task with multiple, not binary, choices. Wild chickadees were subjected to one of three spatial learning tasks that differed in the number and duration of learned associations and then completed a serial reversal task using eight-feeder arrays. All birds learned the locations of two rewarding feeders sequentially. The control group then started the serial reversal task with reward alternating daily between those two feeders. The two experimental groups had to sequentially learn an additional two locations but differed in the time allowed to learn these associations – one day for the short exposure group and three days for the long exposure group. This was followed by the serial reversal task which involved daily alternations between these two additional feeder locations. The birds in the long exposure group showed fewer location errors and learned the reversal rule faster than birds in the short exposure group. Our results demonstrate that increased experience with specific associations improves cognitive flexibility involving these associations when animals have multiple choices.  \nKeywords Cognitive flexibility · Serial reversal · Avian cognition · Cognitive ecology · Rule learning · Spatial cognition · Spatial learning and memory · Chickadee  \nIntroduction  \nAnimals frequently encounter environments where conditions change, such as shifting weather and food availability. In order to navigate these challenges, animals may utilise cognitive flexibility to adapt to changing conditions where they rapidly learn and re-learn changing learning contingencies in light of new information (Badre and Wagner 2007; Bond et al. 2007; Izquierdo et al. 2017; Shettleworth 2010;  \n􀀍 A. A. H. Richmond [a.a.h.richmond@gmail.com](a.a.h.richmond@gmail.com)  \n1 University of Nevada, Reno, USA  \n2 Princeton University, Princeton, USA  \n3 Oregon State University, Corvallis, USA  \n4 University of Oklahoma, Norman, USA  \nStrang and Sherry 2014; Tello-Ramos et al. 2019) . For example, an animal that learns a previously rewarding food location is no longer reliable must discard its former search strategy and explore alternatives, through approaches such as win-stay, lose-shift (persist in the same location if it is rewarding and change if it is not) . This adaptability is hypothesised to be a part of executive control function, as it relies on inhibiting previously learned but no longer rewarding associations and is particularly useful in uncertain environments with fluctuating resources and conditions, such as short-term changes in temperature, precipitation, or food availability (Benedict et al. 2023; Dunlap and Stephens 2016; Izquierdo et al. 2017; Lai et al. 1995; Stephens 1991; Strang and Sherry 2014) .  \nWhile often contrasted with associative learning, which links specific cues such as colour or space to rewards through reinforcement, cognitive flexibility is distinct. It involves inhibiting previous associations to acco","cbCaiaM9aFRqvufx","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiaM9aFRqvufx","pdf",2447590,"English","# Abstract\n# Introduction","[{\"question\":\"What is cognitive flexibility in this study?\",\"answer\":\"Cognitive flexibility is the ability to adjust previously learned associations when new information changes the relevant contingencies.\"},{\"question\":\"How were the chickadees trained for the spatial tasks?\",\"answer\":\"All birds learned two rewarding feeder locations sequentially, then groups differed in how many additional locations they learned and the exposure time allowed.\"},{\"question\":\"What was the main finding about learning time and performance?\",\"answer\":\"The long exposure group made fewer location errors and learned the reversal rule faster than the short exposure group.\"}]","More experience in the initial learning of spatial information improves cognitive flexibility in food-caching chickadees | PDF",1790732743]