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Using direct EF assessment data from a nationally representative sample of 10,800 public school kindergarteners, the analysis finds no teacher-level variation within schools but substantial variation across schools. School-associated EF variation shows only weak correlation with academic achievement, indicating some schools improve achievement without improving EF, and vice versa.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":40,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/research-report/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/measuring-more-schools-teachers-and-the-development-of-kindergartners-executive-function-skills-executive-function-gains-across-schools-and-teachers/590664/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/measuring-more-schools-teachers-and-the-development-of-kindergartners-executive-function-skills-executive-function-gains-across-schools-and-teachers/590664.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Stanley","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-29","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":34},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What question does the study address about executive function gains?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"It examines the extent to which schools and teachers are associated with gains in kindergarteners’ executive function skills.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"What do the findings show about variation in EF gains within schools versus across schools?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"There is no variation in EF gains among teachers within the same school, but there is substantial variation across different schools.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"How are school-linked changes in EF related to changes in academic achievement?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"They are only weakly correlated, suggesting some schools are linked to academic gains without EF gains, and vice versa.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},590664,1792165984,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":39,"category_name":40,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":34,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},2336477405376,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_29158cc5080c5b710cf443261637dec0","AERA Open  \nJuly-September 2016, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 1–14  \nDOI: 10. 1177/2332858416665811 © The Author(s) 2016. [http://ero.sagepub.com](http://ero.sagepub.com)  \nMeasuring More: Schools, Teachers, and the Development of Kindergartners Executive Function Skills  \nMichael H. Little  \nUniversity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill  \nDespite growing interest in the importance of nonacademic skills for student success, very few studies have examined the extent to which schools and teachers are associated with gains in these outcomes. This descriptive study adds to the nascent literature by examining the amount of school-and teacher-associated variation in kindergarten students’ executive function (EF) skill gains. Leveraging direct EF assessment data from a nationally representative sample of 10,800 public school kindergarteners, the analysis reveals no variation in EF gains among teachers within schools but substantial variation across schools. Additionally, it shows that school-associated variation in EF and academic achievement are weakly correlated, suggesting that some schools are associated with increases in student achievement but not with EF skills and vice versa.  \nKeywords: early childhood, elementary schools, executive function, hierarchical linear modeling, neuroscience, policy, psychology, school/teacher effectiveness, secondary data analysis, statistics  \nThe use of value-added models (VAMs)—which attempt to measure the unique contribution of schools and teachers to students’ academic achievement gains while accounting for differences in student background characteristics—is one of the most widely discussed and debated topics in education policy (Chetty, Friedman, & Rockoff, 2011; DarlingHammond, Amrein-Beardsley, Haertel, & Rothstein, 2012; Sass, Semykina, & Harris, 2014) . Moreover, VAMs are central to many recent reform efforts in education, including school grading and teacher evaluation systems (DarlingHammond, 2015; Winters & Cowen, 2012). However, to date, VAMs have been almost exclusively applied to academic achievement—largely ignoring other outcomes that schools and teachers may influence, such as mind-set or “grit.” Only in recent years have researchers begun to apply these models to nonacademic outcomes, including social skills, behavioral skills, and motivation (Jennings & DiPrete, 2010; Ruzek, Domina, Conley, Duncan, & Karabenick, 2014) .  \nVAMs have not yet been applied to executive function (EF), which is a set of cognitive processes—including inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility—that helps individuals focus, resist urges, and direct their actions to achieve goals (Diamond & Lee, 2011) . Recent evidence highlighting the unique positive contribution of EF skills on academic achievement, particularly for high-poverty populations, has led many schools to adopt interventions to boost children’s EF skills (Best, Miller, & Naglieri, 2011; Blair & Diamond, 2008; Ursache, Blair, & Raver, 2012) . A range of interventions have been shown to improve children’s EF  \nskills, including class curricula, teacher trainings on behavior management, computer training programs, and even mindfulness and tae kwon do exercises (Diamond & Lee, 2011) .  \nWhile the promotion of EF skills in education has become a popular topic in recent years, no research has examined the extent to which schools and teachers may differ in their promotion of these skills. In this descriptive study, I begin to address this gap by examining the variability in kindergarten students’ EF gains associated with schools and teachers.  \nBackground  \nEF Construct and Its Development  \nEF skills help individuals focus on and persist in the attainment of goals, which are both critical components to academic success (Ursache et al., 2012) . These skills are frequently described as the “air traffic control system of the brain,” where thoughts and impulses traveling throughout the brain are sorted and processed (Center on the Developing C","cbCaiazezq5PmhIK","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaiazezq5PmhIK","pdf",393267,14,"English","# Measuring More: Schools, Teachers, and the Development of Kindergartners’ Executive Function Skills\n## Background\n### EF Construct and Its Development","[{\"question\":\"What question does the study address about executive function gains?\",\"answer\":\"It examines the extent to which schools and teachers are associated with gains in kindergarteners’ executive function skills.\"},{\"question\":\"What do the findings show about variation in EF gains within schools versus across schools?\",\"answer\":\"There is no variation in EF gains among teachers within the same school, but there is substantial variation across different schools.\"},{\"question\":\"How are school-linked changes in EF related to changes in academic achievement?\",\"answer\":\"They are only weakly correlated, suggesting some schools are linked to academic gains without EF gains, and vice versa.\"}]","Measuring More: Schools, Teachers, and the Development of Kindergartners’ Executive Function Skills - Executive function gains across schools and teachers | PDF",1792070161,35]