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Research emphasizes aligning educational practices with students’ full academic and linguistic capacities, identities, and experiences so that assessment tasks are understood and responded to meaningfully. The brief analyzes how summative and classroom assessment levels can incorporate ways of knowing, while addressing validity, fairness, measurement error, and the practical challenges of development and educator support.",{"@graph":69,"@context":122},[70,84,105],{"@type":71,"itemListElement":72},"BreadcrumbList",[73,77,79,82],{"item":74,"name":75,"@type":76,"position":8},"https://docshare.wps.com","Home","ListItem",{"item":78,"name":9,"@type":76,"position":14},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/",{"item":80,"name":20,"@type":76,"position":81},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/exam/",3,{"item":83,"name":65,"@type":76,"position":19},"https://docshare.wps.com/document/leveraging-student-perspectives-considerations-for-connecting-assessment-systems-and-multiple-ways-of-knowing/586825/",{"url":83,"name":65,"@type":85,"image":86,"author":91,"headline":65,"publisher":94,"fileFormat":97,"inLanguage":63,"description":67,"dateModified":98,"datePublished":99,"encodingFormat":97,"isAccessibleForFree":100,"interactionStatistic":101},"DigitalDocument",{"url":87,"@type":88,"width":89,"height":90},"https://docshare.wps.com/thumbnails/leveraging-student-perspectives-considerations-for-connecting-assessment-systems-and-multiple-ways-of-knowing/586825.png","ImageObject",300,407,{"name":92,"@type":93},"Sarah ","Person",{"url":74,"name":95,"@type":96},"DocShare","Organization","application/pdf","2026-10-21","2026-10-15",true,{"@type":102,"interactionType":103,"userInteractionCount":14},"InteractionCounter",{"@type":104},"ViewAction",{"@type":106,"mainEntity":107},"FAQPage",[108,114,118],{"name":109,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":111},"What does “ways of knowing” mean in this brief?","Question",{"text":112,"@type":113},"“Ways of knowing” refers to the variety of ways individuals make sense of the world, shaped by personal background, history, experience, and community context.","Answer",{"name":115,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":116},"Why is ways of knowing relevant to assessment?",{"text":117,"@type":113},"Because it influences how students understand assessment tasks and activities, and therefore how they respond. Addressing it helps ensure assessment meaning for multiple learners.",{"name":119,"@type":110,"acceptedAnswer":120},"What challenges limit incorporating ways of knowing across assessment levels?",{"text":121,"@type":113},"At the classroom level, teachers may lack time to probe students’ ways of knowing and use the information. At school-district and state levels, large-scale development may require larger samples, additional procedures like cognitive interviews, and changes that carry cost and time implications.","https://schema.org",{"og:url":83,"og:type":124,"og:title":65,"og:site_name":95,"og:description":67},"article",{"robots":126,"canonical":83},"index,follow",{"doc_id":128,"site_id":62},586825,1792568572,{"code":4,"msg":5,"data":131},{"doc_id":128,"user_id":132,"nickname":92,"user_avatar":133,"doc_module":4,"category_id":19,"category_name":20,"doc_title":65,"doc_description":67,"doc_content":134,"file_id":135,"file_url":136,"file_type":137,"file_size":138,"view_count":14,"is_deleted":4,"is_public":8,"is_downloadable":8,"audit_status":8,"page_count":139,"language":140,"language_code":63,"site_id":62,"html_lang":63,"table_of_contents":141,"faqs":142,"seo_title":143,"seo_description":67,"update_tm":144,"read_time":145,"preview_page_count":4},962085320529,"https://ap-avatar.wpscdn.com/davatar_9964176cb1d06d4a9deccf72a44ae3dc","Leveraging Student Perspectives  \nConsiderations for Connecting Assessment Systems and Multiple Ways of Knowing  \nLeveraging student perspectives: Considerations for connecting assessment systems and multiple ways of knowing  \nSubmitted to the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium, by  \nPaulina Biernacki, Stanford University  \nMarch 10, 2022  \nAcknowledgements: The author would like to extend special thanks to Magda Chia, Richard Durán, James Pellegrino, Maria Araceli Ruiz-Primo, and Guillermo Solano-Flores for their thought partnership and guidance. The author would also like to thank Audrey Lesondak and Vitaliy Shyyan, who provided very thoughtful feedback on earlier drafts of this report. Any errors, however, are solely attributed to the author of this brief.  \nSuggested citation:  \nBiernacki, P. J. (2022) . Assessing the options: Considerations for provision of choice in assessment.  \nSmarter Balanced Assessment Consortium.  \n[https://portal.smarterbalanced.org/library/en/practice-brief-ways-of-knowing.pdf](https://portal.smarterbalanced.org/library/en/practice-brief-ways-of-knowing.pdf)  \nExecutive Summary  \nWays of knowing is the term used to refer to the variety of ways in which individuals make sense of the world, and which are shaped by personal background and experience. Research from the learning sciences emphasizes the need to connect educational practices with students’ways of knowing and their full range of academic and linguistic skills, experiences, family histories, and community contexts. By integrating the different ways in which students relate to the world, teachers can promote student engagement and gain insights about identity development.  \nWays of knowing is relevant to assessment because, in addition to knowledge on the content assessed, they shape how students understand assessment tasks (items) or activities, and how they respond to them. Properly addressing ways of knowing offers the possibility of ensuring that assessment activities and tasks are meaningful to multiple learners.  \nWhile summative assessment takes place at the three levels of an assessment system (classroom assessment, school or district assessment, and state-level accountability assessment) classroom assessment instruments and activities (both formative and summative) are closer to the students’ experiences. Therefore, in classroom assessment (and especially formative assessment activities, which are part of instruction), social interaction and communication with students is critical for educators to develop a good understanding of their students’ways of knowing and to help them connect their personal backgrounds and experiences to the content being taught. This form of support is also important for educators to interpret information from large-scale assessment on their students’ academic achievement.  \nIn principle, addressing ways of knowing in large-scale assessment (which is intended to provide information on large populations of students), may promote valid and fair assessment practices for diverse student populations by contributing to minimizing measurement error due to factors related to students’ personal backgroundsand experiences that are not relevant to the target constructs. In large-scale assessment, addressing ways of knowing needs to be based on proper consideration of the heterogeneity of the populations tested. This effort entails including representative samples of students in all stages in the process of assessment development. Participation of these students should include test try outs and interviews intended to obtain information about the ways in which they interpret the content and contexts of items and how they connect those content and contexts to their views and personal backgrounds and experiences.  \nPRACTICE BRIEF: LEVERAGING STUDENT PERSPECTIVES 3  \nThere are serious challenges that limit the extent to which ways of knowing can be effectively incorporated into the three levels of assessment system. ","cbCaisruhsCBSG1f","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaisruhsCBSG1f","pdf",1135876,14,"English","# Executive Summary\n## Ways of knowing and its relevance to assessment\n## Classroom assessment and educator support\n## Large-scale assessment: validity, fairness, and heterogeneity\n# Introduction\n## Definition and sources of ways of knowing\n## Implications of heterogeneity for educators","[{\"question\":\"What does “ways of knowing” mean in this brief?\",\"answer\":\"“Ways of knowing” refers to the variety of ways individuals make sense of the world, shaped by personal background, history, experience, and community context.\"},{\"question\":\"Why is ways of knowing relevant to assessment?\",\"answer\":\"Because it influences how students understand assessment tasks and activities, and therefore how they respond. Addressing it helps ensure assessment meaning for multiple learners.\"},{\"question\":\"What challenges limit incorporating ways of knowing across assessment levels?\",\"answer\":\"At the classroom level, teachers may lack time to probe students’ ways of knowing and use the information. At school-district and state levels, large-scale development may require larger samples, additional procedures like cognitive interviews, and changes that carry cost and time implications.\"}]","Leveraging Student Perspectives - Considerations for Connecting Assessment Systems and Multiple Ways of Knowing | PDF",1792059520,35]