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This reflects a shift in the field of development that has been going on for the past few decades. \"Participatory Rural Appraisal\" (PRA) is one approach to participatory development that has received much attention and is the source of much debate. PRA represents a philosophy of or approach to development (specifically rural development) as well as a concomitant set of techniques, which places emphasis on local knowledge and local solutions. PRA sought to challenge practices within the development field, which relied heavily on assumptions about development expertise residing with outsiders-assumptions that PRA's advocates argued doomed development to failure. PRA emerged primarily from experiences in rural development and built on methods such as action research, rapid rural appraisal and applied anthropology. PRA places great emphasis on the role of the facilitator, and writings about PRA devote considerable time to outlining the attitudesand characteristics a facilitator should possess (Chambers, 1997) . PRA techniques also rely heavily on mapping, diagramming and public dialogue about community problems and issues. One of the key expressed goals of such techniques was to make PRA accessible to the illiterate and others who might be left out of traditional information gathering processes.  \nInterestingly, some of the strongest critiques of PRA point to the reliance on such techniques and the public nature of these PRA exercises, as the source of PRA's major weaknesses (Kapoor, 2002; Mosse, 1994) . For example, David Mosse (1994) argues that PRA techniques represent one approach to gathering knowledge and information, an approach that may be biased against women and that is often not conducive to the types of knowledge about agriculture embedded in the practice of communities. Ilan Kapoor (2002) argues that the reliance on public deliberation in PRA exercises ensures that dominant voices will prevail. He argues that PRA does not have any mechanism built into it to manage differences and that the public nature of PRA not only fails to address such difference but actually serves to gloss them over.  \nThis paper will examine some of these critiques of PRA, as well as its practical challenges, by drawing upon the experiences of the author teaching about participatory development in a graduate level development studies program.  \nBackground  \nSince the fall of 2002, I have been a lecturer at Columbia University's School of International and Public Affairs. In this capacity, I teach courses in the Economic and  \n© 2004 Current Issues in Comparative Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 64 May 10, 2004  \nLearning and Teaching about Participatory Development:  \nThe Practical and Theoretical Challenges  \nPolitical Development concentration, a development studies program designed to prepare young professionals interested in entering the field of development1. In addition to teaching development related courses, I coordinate the \"Workshop in Applied Development\". This is a practicum in development through which teams of students undertake pro-bono consulting engagements for international development organizations. My comments in this paper stem specifically from teaching a course entitled \"Program and Project Management for Development\" (PPMD), as well as my experiences advising students in the Workshop in Applied Development. After a brief description of each of these courses, the paper will examine three key themes or issues which have emerged through these teaching experiences, relating them to broader debates about PRA in the literature on development.  \nThe PPMD course is no","cbCaindykjLLjINL","https://ap.wps.com/l/cbCaindykjLLjINL","pdf",197719,"English","# Introduction\n## Background\n# Learning and Teaching about Participatory Development","[{\"question\":\"PRA强调哪些核心要素？\",\"answer\":\"PRA强调地方知识与地方解决方案，并突出促进者（facilitator）的角色与应具备的态度和特征。\"},{\"question\":\"为什么有学者批评PRA的公共性与技术依赖？\",\"answer\":\"批评认为公共的讨论与练习会让主导声音占优势；同时，PRA缺乏管理分歧的机制，公共性反而可能掩盖差异。\"},{\"question\":\"作者如何把批评与教学实践联系起来？\",\"answer\":\"作者基于其在哥伦比亚大学相关研究生课程与辅导工作中的教学经验，结合课堂中让学生设计并实施PRA的做法，讨论这些批评及其实际操作中的挑战。\"}]","Learning and Teaching about Participatory Development - The Practical and Theoretical Challenges | PDF",1792090924,23]